<HTML><BODY style="word-wrap: break-word; -khtml-nbsp-mode: space; -khtml-line-break: after-white-space; "><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style=""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">LANGUAGE AND LINGUISTICS 4.4:669-681, 2003 </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">2003-0-004-004-000059-1 </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">What IS a Name? Reflections on Onomastics* </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">William Bright </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">University of Colorado </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Onomastics, as the study of proper names, has been of concern to many </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">branches of scholarship, including philosophy and history. The present paper takes </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">the viewpoint of anthropological linguistics, as applied especially to personal </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">names and place names among North American Indians. The question is raised as </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">to whether terms which embody a DESCRIPTION can be considered proper names, </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">e.g., whether a term meaning literally ‘man living by the stream’ can be a personal </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">name, or whether a term meaning ‘rock standing by the stream’ can be a </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">placename. Grammatical peculiarities of placenames are also considered, and </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">examples are given from Karuk (California), Creek (Oklahoma), and Nahuatl </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">(Mexico). </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Key words: onomastics, toponyms, anthroponyms, North American Indians </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">“You are sad,” the Knight said in an anxious tone: “let me sing you a song to </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">comfort you.” </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">“Is it very long?” Alice asked, for she had heard a good deal of poetry that day. </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">“It’s long,” said the Knight, “but very, very beautiful. Everybody that hears me </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">sing it—either it brings the tears into their eyes, or else—” </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">“Or else what?” said Alice, for the Knight had made a sudden pause. </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">“Or else it doesn’t, you know. The name of the song is called ‘Haddocks’ Eyes’.” </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">“Oh, that’s the name of the song, is it?” Alice said, trying to feel interested. </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">“No, you don’t understand,” the Knight said, looking a little vexed. “That’s what </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">the name is called. The name really is ‘The Aged Aged Man’.” </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">“Then I ought to have said ‘That’s what the song is called’?” Alice corrected </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">herself. </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">* </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">This paper was delivered as a lecture at the Institute of Linguistics, Academia Sinica, on 24 </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">February 2003. I am grateful for helpful comments from my audience, especially from Dr. Ho </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Dah-an and from my wife, Lise Menn. I would like to dedicate this paper to the memory of two </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">great Chinese linguists who were my teachers and friends: Professor Chao Yuen-ren and </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Professor Li Fang-kuei. </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">William Bright </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">670 </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">“No, you oughtn’t: that’s quite another thing! The song is called ‘Ways and </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Means’: but that’s only what it’s called, you know!” </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">“Well, what is the song, then?” said Alice, who was by this time completely </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">bewildered. </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">“I was coming to that,” the Knight said. “The song really is ‘A-Sitting on a Gate’: </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">and the tune’s my own invention.” </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">—Through the Looking-Glass </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">1. Terms and definitions </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Many books and articles have taken as their title the famous line from Shakespeare’s </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Romeo and Juliet: “What’s in a name?” I choose to raise a slightly different question: </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">“What IS a name?”—not to answer the question definitively, of course, but simply to </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">focus attention on some aspects of the problem. In doing so, I also want to focus </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">attention on the field of onomastics, understood as the study of names. Such study is, in </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">fact, carried out as part of several larger fields, including linguistics, ethnography, folklore, </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">philology, history, geography, philosophy, and literary scholarship. In Europe, especially </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">in Germany, it is a well recognized branch of philology, as witness the three-volume </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">encyclopedic survey of the field recently published there (Eichler et al. 1996, 2,259 pp.) </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">By contrast, in the US, onomastics is scarcely recognized as a scholarly field at all. To </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">be sure, there is an organization called the American Name Society, which publishes a </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">small journal called Names, but only a few linguists belong to the society, and most </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">linguists have probably never heard of the organization or the journal. I myself have </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">been interested in onomastics since my student days, and I have published articles in </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">the journal Names; but even so, in 1992, when I edited the International Encyclopedia </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">of Linguistics, it never occurred to me to plan for an article on names. Fortunately, the </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">forthcoming second edition of that encyclopedia will repair my omission. </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">To begin with, the word name is often used to mean a term which can refer to </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">anything, as when we say: “Banana is the name of a fruit,” or “Murder is the name of a </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">crime.” In this sense, the word name is virtually synonymous with the word noun; </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">indeed, in some languages, the same term can used for both, e.g., French nom. In this </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">sense, the relationship between a name and that to which it refers has been the topic of </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">an extensive literature written by philosophers specializing in semantics (cf. Zabeeh </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">1968, Lehrer 1992, Lamarque 1994). These writers have had much to say about the </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">material in the famous quotation from Through the Looking Glass. I must admit to </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">ignorance of this large topic, and so I will go on to more limited aspects of names and </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">naming. </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">What IS a Name? Reflections on Onomastics </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">671 </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Within the general category of names, people often use the word name for what </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">we can more precisely call proper names. Within this subdivision, it is common to </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">distinguish two principal types. One of these is place names or toponyms; another is </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">PERSONAL NAMES, for which we have no commonly used term derived from Greek, but </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">which are sometimes called anthroponyms. My discussion is limited to these two types, </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">but it can be noted that other varieties exist, such as ethnonyms—terms referring to </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">nationalities or ethnic groups—and glottonyms, referring to languages. An English </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">example of both these types is Chinese, referring not only to the nationality, but also to </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">the language that corresponds to the toponym China. </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">It is not easy to define the term proper name (Algeo 1973). In English and some </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">other European languages, such words often appear in writing with initial capital letters; </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">but obviously this cannot define the term for spoken language, or for writing systems </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">like Chinese which have no capital letters. Are there grammatical criteria to identify the </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">proper name? </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">In English, it is often observed that it is unusual for proper names to occur with </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">articles — either indefinite (a, an) or definite (the). A sentence like The George and a </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Henry come from England is hard to interpret unless someone explains that it is </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">intended to mean ‘The one person in this group named George, and one of the people </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">named Henry, come from England.’ </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Such usage may be made clearer by the use of spoken or written emphasis: He’s </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">not THE George (who was King of England), he’s just A George (one of many people </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">named George). But of course other languages have very different rules for using </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">definite and indefinite articles; and many languages, such as Chinese, do not use </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">articles at all. </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">It may be that, for a universal concept of the proper name, we must seek semantic </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">and pragmatic definitions. To put it briefly, we may say that a proper name represents a </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">social convention for brief reference to a specific entity, as opposed to a class of </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">persons or places. For example, George may refer to ‘my cousin who is legally </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">designated as George Baker; the Bakers refers to a family of people named Baker (as </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">contrasted with the bakers ‘the people who bake bread’); America may refer to ‘the </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">nation which is legally and politically designated as the United States of America’. </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Much more could be—and has been—said about this (cf. Lehrer 1994), but I only want </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">to establish this simple understanding as a basis for further discussion. </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">As I’ve said, the types of proper names which are most often discussed are </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">personal names and placenames. I wish to focus here, first, on a proposed characteristic </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">of personal names, namely their universality; and second, on a frequently remarked </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">characteristic of placenames, namely their descriptiveness. As we shall see, there is a </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">relationship between these two topics.</FONT><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">William Bright </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">672 </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Finally, at the end of this paper, I wish to point out that, in some languages, </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">placenames may function not only as nouns, but also as adverbs. I believe that this may </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">the case in many more languages than have been reported. </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">2. Personal names and universality </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">There is a piece of folklore current among anthropologists regarding the question </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">of whether personal names exist in all societies. So far I have not been able to trace this </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">to a printed source, but it is somewhat as follows: Somewhere in the world there is a </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">society where people live in very small, isolated communities. In such a community, </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">people have no personal names; i.e., individuals have no name which other people use </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">to refer specifically to them. Instead, they are referred to by descriptive expressions, e.g., </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">‘the blacksmith’ or ‘the man who lives by the stream’. A woman will be referred to as, </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">e.g., ‘the blacksmith’s wife’. Children will be referred to by expressions such as ‘the </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">blacksmith’s elder daughter’; when this daughter gets married, she may be referred to as, </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">e.g., ‘the wife of the man who lives by the stream’. The question arises: Is there such a </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">society? Or more to the point: Is such a society possible? </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">In discussing such a question, we need to realize that many people in the world do </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">not have such highly organized systems of personal naming as we are accustomed to in </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">our own societies. In European societies, as well as China and Japan, every person is </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">assigned a public, legal name, in written form, around the time of birth; part of this </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">usually reflects the child’s father’s name. The individual normally has that same legal </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">name through life—with exceptions, e.g., where married women take on their husband’s </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">family names. In addition, a person may have informal “nicknames” during different </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">parts of life. Sometimes these are used only by close relatives or intimates; in any case, </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">they do not replace the public and legal names. </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">By contrast, in non-literate societies, where names remain unwritten, there is </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">greater variety in naming customs (cf. the anthropological studies in Tooker 1984). A </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">child may be given a “real” name at birth, but this may be kept a secret throughout life. </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Elsewhere, such a “real” name may be publicly known, but not used for everyday </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">purposes; most of the time, a nickname—perhaps descriptive, e.g., Shorty—may be </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">used. A person may be called by different names at different periods of life, or by </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">different people under changing conditions. Use of certain names under particular </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">circumstances may be forbidden by religious taboo; or then again, such names may be </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">replaced by descriptive nicknames. Because of these factors, it may be difficult for the </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">outside investigator of such a society to determine what a person’s “real” name is, or </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">even what name is commonly used in the community; taboos are likely to be especially </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">strict when one is talking to outsiders. </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">What IS a Name? Reflections on Onomastics </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">673 </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">I suggest then, that the apocryphal community I mentioned—in which nobody has </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">a personal name, and people are referred to only by ad-hoc descriptions—does not exist. </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">I suggest that any anthropologist who might have reported such a community was </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">misled by the operation of taboos on uttering personal names. I suggest, in fact, that the </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">use of personal names, having varying levels of descriptiveness, is a sociolinguistic </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">universal of the human species. Of course, I will be glad if any colleague can provide </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">evidence to prove me wrong. However, the concept of “descriptiveness” must itself be </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">discussed, and I will do this in the following section, in relation to placenames. </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">3. Placenames and descriptiveness </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">In many parts of the world, it is a commonplace that some placenames have no </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">etymologies that we can discover, e.g., European names like Rome, Paris, and London. </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">It is possible that these were once descriptive expressions in European languages, but </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">they became eroded, phonetically and semantically, so that their origins were no longer </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">apparent. It is also possible that these names were borrowed in ancient times from other </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">languages, of which we have imperfect knowledge, such as Etruscan in Italy or Gaulish </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">in France, and this is why we do not understand their original meaning. But other </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">European placenames have clear descriptive origins, in England, we find examples like </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Newmarket and Whitechurch. </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">In North America, many placenames were simply transferred from places in </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Europe, such as London and Paris—or, indeed, Newmarket and Whitechurch. Other </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">American placenames do not have clear etymologies in English, but this is because they </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">were borrowed from American Indian languages, in which they were descriptive </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">formations. Examples are Massachusetts, meaning ‘big hill’, and Connecticut, meaning </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">‘long river’, both from an Algonquian language. In addition, however, North America </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">has many placenames which simply describe the American locations to which they </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">were applied, e.g., Long Island (New York State), Great Falls (Montana), and Grand </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Canyon (Arizona). </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">In other parts of the world, it is likely that placenames also have a variety of </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">origins; some are transferred, some are borrowed, and many are descriptive coinages. </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">However, the placenames of China and Japan present a special problem. On the surface, </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">it seems possible to find etymologies for most of them in terms of the characters with </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">which they are written; e.g., the Chinese placename Taiwan is written with characters </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">meaning ‘platform’ and ‘bay’; and superficially, that might be a correct etymology. In </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">fact, however, the name is a folk-etymology, based on the name of an aboriginal </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">(Austronesian) tribe. Again, in Japanese, historical study reveals that some names were </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">not formerly written with the same characters that are used today. For example, the </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">William Bright </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">674 </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">name of Mount Fuji has been written with a variety of characters over the centuries, and </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">its original meaning is controversial; it may be derived from a language spoken in the area </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">before Japanese. It seems possible that, in mainland China also, some placenames were </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">borrowed from non-Chinese languages, such as Manchu (in the north) or Thai (in the </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">south), and it may not be possible to arrive at precise etymologies for them. </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">3.1 American Indian placenames: Must every name have an etymology? </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">I’ve worked for many years with American Indian languages, and I’ve been </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">especially interested in the placenames used in those languages—many of which, as </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">I’ve noted, have been borrowed into English. (For valuable recent studies of the </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">sociolinguistics of placenames among American Indians and other peoples, see Feld & </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Basso 1996, Basso 1996; for etymological considerations, cf. Bright 2002.) However, </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">especially when one reads discussion of placename origins, one finds the persistent bit </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">of folklore that the meaning of words is, on some essential level, to be found in their </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">histories, rather than in their use. Such belief in the covert significance of etymology is </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">also especially common in discussions of Native American placenames. </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">One of the most prominent scholars in the field of American placenames was </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Erwin G. Gudde (1889-1969), a professor of German literature at Berkeley who became </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">an authority on California history; he was the founding editor of Names (the journal of </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">the American Name Society), and the author of California Place Names, one of the </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">most respected among state placename dictionaries. Gudde’s dictionary, published by </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">the University of California Press, went through three editions between 1949 and </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">1969 — and the third edition was, surprisingly, translated into Chinese and published in </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Taiwan (1989). A fourth edition, revised by myself, came out in 1998. However, Gudde </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">often seemed reluctant to examine possible American Indian etymologies for California </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">placenames, and indeed his views of Native American cultures in general were often </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">rather strange. Thus he stated, in his Preface: “The original inhabitants had very few </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">geographical names, and practically all of these were descriptive... Mountains themselves </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">were of no practical importance to the Indians and probably had no names.” </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">This statement is remarkable, considering that Gudde was familiar with such </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">works as T.T. Waterman’s Yurok Geography (1920), which lists over 900 placenames </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">(including mountains) used in the rather limited territory of the Yurok tribe and </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">language, in northwestern California. For years I was puzzled as to how Gudde could </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">have said that American Indians “had very few geographical names.” Only more </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">recently, while reading extensively on American placenames, I’ve realized that Gudde’s </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">statement reflects a long-standing attitude among onomastic scholars. In recent years, </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Leonard Ashley has written (1996:1403): “What we think of as placenames may differ </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">What IS a Name? Reflections on Onomastics </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">675 </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">considerably from names Amerindians put upon the land. The red man [sic] considered </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">himself a part of nature, not the master of it... The names he gave were more like </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">descriptions: any large river might be ‘big river’... It is arguable that an Amerindian </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">name that translates ‘where there is a heap of stones’ ... is no more a name in our strict </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">sense than the expression ‘the corner grocery that stays open until midnight’.”</FONT><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">The ethnocentric message of these quotations seems to be that American Indians, </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">seen by Whites as “children of nature,” did not have real placenames; to the extent that </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">such names had clear etymologies, they could be regarded as mere “descriptions.” Of </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">course, we might say the same of American English placenames like Long Island, </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Great Falls, or Grand Canyon. But two other points can be made. First, many Native </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">American placenames were indeed morphologically complex and semantically </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">“descriptive,” but they are not fairly represented by such translations as ‘where there is </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">a heap of stones’. Thus the Karuk placename asánaamkarak, on the Klamath River in </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">northwestern California, can be interpreted etymologically as ‘where a rocky flat place </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">extends into the water’—but thanks to the “polysynthetic” character of the Karuk </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">language, the native name is a single word and a single lexical item, and thus is as </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">much a proper name as “Rocky Flats”. </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">At this point I want to return to the notion of what, in terms of grammar, </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">constitutes a “merely descriptive” phrase vs. a “placename”. Obviously, in any language, </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">one can put together a descriptive phrase to describe a place, like Ashley’s “corner </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">grocery that stays open until midnight”. But abundant examples can be found, in Karuk </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">or any other American Indian language, of placenames which, although descriptive, are not </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">cumbersome phrases; rather, they are tight-knit words, sometimes quite short; thus the </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Karuk placename inaam means ‘place of performing the world-renewal ceremony’. In </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">the Navajo language, spoken in Arizona, the placename Chínlín means ‘the stream </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">flows outward’ (Wilson 1995). </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Furthermore, Native Americans used many placenames that were not descriptive. </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">They consisted of single morphemes, with no meaning except their toponymic reference. </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Among the Karuk tribe, village names included terms such as Píptaas, Kíinik, Útkee, </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Tíih, Kúuyiv, Túuyvuk, and Vúpam. These are just as unanalyzable, whether by the </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">linguist or the native speaker, as European placenames such as London, Paris, or Rome. </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">To be sure, all these names may have once been “descriptive”—but their etymologies, </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">whether American Indian or European, have long been irrelevant to their usage. Their </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">meanings are, to quote one of my favorite clichés, “lost in the mists of antiquity.” </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">The same principle applies to many names of Native American tribes and languages, </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">such as those of the Cherokee and Choctaw, who now live in Oklahoma. (Some of </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">these have also come to be used by whites as placenames.) It’s clear that English </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">borrowed the first of these terms from the Cherokee self-designation Tsalagi, and the </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">William Bright </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">676 </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">second from the Choctaw self-designation Chahta. In their respective languages, these </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">words mean nothing more or less than ‘Cherokee’ and ‘Choctaw’. However, some </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">commentators on Indian ethnic names and placenames have strained their imaginations </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">to propose fanciful etymologies. So it has been said that Cherokee comes from a word </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">of the neighboring Creek language, meaning ‘people of a different speech’. However, </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">the Creek word for ‘Cherokee’ is</FONT><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">/calá:kki/, probably borrowed from Cherokee Tsalagi; </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">whereas the unrelated word meaning ‘to speak a different language’ is /cilo:kk-itá/ </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">(Martin & Mauldin 2000). As for the Choctaw word Chahta, it has been said that “its </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">meaning is unknown”; but as my colleague Pamela Munro points out, one might as well </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">say that the meaning of the Choctaw word Chahta is ‘Choctaw’. Of course such names </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">must have had SOME remote historical origins; but those are lost to us, and they are </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">irrelevant to the speakers of Cherokee or Choctaw. The same label, “Meaning unknown,” </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">could be attached to European ethnic names such as German or Greek.</FONT><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">3.2 The case of Creek </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">The Creek or Muskogee language, a member of the Muskogean language in the </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">southeastern US, presents interesting toponymic data, in particular because of a fact of </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">recent history: the language was spoken in Georgia and Alabama until the early 19th </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">century, but at that time the US government carried out a forcible removal of the </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">speakers to the western territory which is now called Oklahoma. The results as regards </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">toponymy are reflected in a recent Creek dictionary (Martin & Mauldin 2000), which is </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">unusual in that it contains two sections on placenames: one on native Creek toponyms, </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">the other on English placenames of Creek origin. The first of these gives not only </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">geographical names currently used in Oklahoma, but also the hereditary groups called </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">etvlwv /itálwa/, translated as ‘tribal town’ or ‘band’, which correspond to towns that </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">existed earlier in Georgia and Alabama. Among American Indian languages, it is true </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">that descriptive names often predominate, especially where certain language families </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">are involved (e.g., Athabaskan); but the names of Creek tribal towns show a different </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">pattern. Martin & Mauldin list 55 such names. Of these, 5 are “modified” derivatives of </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">simpler names, such as Yofalv-Hopayê ‘Eufaula-distant’, comparable to English names </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">like West Virginia. There are 16 clearly descriptive names, like Tvlv-hasse ‘town-rancid’ </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">(Tullahassee in Oklahoma, Tallahassee in Florida), plus 5 which can be analyzed only </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">in part. But 17 names are monomorphemic and etymologically opaque, mostly consisting </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">of only three syllables, e.g., Apehkv (Eng. ‘Arbeka’), Helvpe (‘Hillabee’), Kasihta </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">(‘Cussetah’), Osuce (‘Osochee’), and Taskêke (‘Tuskegee’). We may hope that future </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">dictionaries of American Indian languages will also include sections on placenames, to </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">give us further insights into Native naming patterns.</FONT><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">What IS a Name? Reflections on Onomastics </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">677 </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Recall now that the issue of “descriptive expressions” has come up in the discussion </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">of both personal names and placenames. Let me summarize: All human beings can </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">create such expressions, which may be long and syntactically complex. But I believe </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">that all human beings also use proper names, which are typically shorter; these sometimes </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">consist of single morphemes, but also often consist of morphologically close-knit, </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">lexicalized terms. The failure to recognize this, as in the remarks by Gudde and Ashley, </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">may in fact be thinly disguised racism. </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">4. Placenames as nouns and/or adverbs </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">The first American Indian language that I studied, starting in 1947, was Nahuatl, </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">spoken by the Aztecs of ancient Mexico, and still used by perhaps a million people. </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">The Nahuatl language happens to have a very large number of descriptive placenames, </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">many of which have been borrowed into Spanish, and some of which have become </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">known internationally, such as the name of the volcano Popocatepetl, lit. ‘smoking </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">mountain’, and indeed the name Mexico itself, from Nahuatl Mexihco, meaning ‘the </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">place of the god Mexihtli’. </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">A feature of the Nahuatl language which surprised me from the beginning was that </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">placenames seemed to have the characteristics of both nouns and adverbs. Morphologically, </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">placenames normally end in locational elements such as -c (after vowels) or -co (after </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">consonants), meaning ‘at, to’, as well as -pan ‘on’ and -tlan ‘near’; these then act like </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">the case suffixes of Latin, or like the prepositions of Spanish or English. Such elements </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">occur in clearly descriptive combinations such as Atoya-c ‘at the river’, Anal-co ‘at the </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">opposite shore’, Tlal-pan ‘on the land’, and Ati-tlan ‘near the water’. Since these </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">resemble locational case forms of nouns, one would expect them to behave like </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">adverbial expressions, and indeed they do:</FONT><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">(1) Atoyac ihcac, lit. ‘at-the-river he-is-standing’ </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">(2) Tlalpan ihcac ‘on-the-land he-is-standing’ </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">(3) Atitlan ihcac ‘near-the-water he-is-standing’</FONT><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Note that the ordinary Spanish and English translations of these sentences would use </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">prepositions: ‘Está parado a Atoyac, He is standing at Atoyac, at Tlalpan, at Atitlan’; </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">the locational elements are PART of the Nahuatl placename, but they have to be expressed </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">by prepositions in the European languages. </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">What surprised me about Nahuatl in 1947 is something that has been more </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">recently pointed out in print by the Mexican scholar Miguel León-Portilla (1982): A </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">William Bright </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">678 </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Nahuatl placename can not only function as an adverb, but also as a subject or object </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">noun, like its Spanish or English counterpart. Thus we can say the following: </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">(4) Atoyac nican ca ‘(The town of) Atoyac is here.’ </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">(5) Tlalpan huey altepetl ‘(The town of) Tlalpan is a big city.’ </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">(6) Atitlan quittac ‘He saw (the town of) Atitlan.’</FONT><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">That is, Nahuatl Tlalpan corresponds both to English ‘at Tlalpan’ and ‘Tlalpan’. Thus </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Nahuatl placenames are syntactically ambivalent in a way not found elsewhere in the </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">language. </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Another way of describing this would be to say that a Nahuatl form *Tlalpan-pan </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">does not occur. This could be called a kind of morphological dissimilation. It would be </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">comparable to a Russian example: the city name Tomsk means ‘pertaining to the river </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Tom’; but the adjective Tomskij means both ‘relating to the River Tom’ and ‘relating to </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">the city Tomsk’; there is no *Tomsk-skij, just as there is no Nahuatl *Tlalpan-pan (cf. </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Menn & MacWhinney 1984). </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">I received another surprise in the 1950s, when I was doing my dissertation </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">research on the Karuk language in northwestern California. I discovered that this </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">language had the same trait as Nahuatl, but with an extension: in Karuk, not just </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">placenames, but ALL locational expressions are capable of functioning both as adverbs </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">and as nouns. For example, the word for ‘door’ is chivchaksurúraam, lit. ‘closing- </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">place’, as in 7; but it also functions as an adverbial meaning ‘at the door’, as in 8: </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">(7) Hôoy chivchaksurúraam? ‘Where’s the door?’</FONT><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">(8) Chivchaksurúraam u’íihya ‘He’s standing at the door.’</FONT><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">English has one word, home, which functions this way, both as a noun and as a locational </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">adverb, as in This is home and He went home.</FONT><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">In fact, we may point to the example of a Karuk word which can either be a </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">placename or not: The word for ‘bowl’ is ásip. The expression ‘in the bowl’ has a </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">locational suffix ásip-ak, but this word is also the name of a native village, Asipak, so </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">called because it’s in a bowl-shaped hollow; and the locational form can be used EITHER as </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">a descriptive adverbial expression OR as a placename. Thus we have locational usage in </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">a sentence like 9, and the locational expression can occur as a noun: </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">(9)</FONT><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Xuun ásipak u’íithra ‘The soup is in the bowl’, or ‘The soup is in (the </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">village of) Asipak.’ </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">(10)</FONT><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Hôoy ásipak? ‘Where is (the village of) Asipak?’ </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">What IS a Name? Reflections on Onomastics </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">679 </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">The Nahuatl and the Karuk languages are spoken about 2000 miles apart, and there is </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">no known historical relationship between them. I have the impression that placenames </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">in some other American Indian languages can function as both nouns and adverbs, but </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">so far I have not found evidence; I will be grateful if any colleagues can point out such </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">cases to me. I will also be grateful if colleagues can point out comparable phenomena </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">in other parts of the world, e.g., Australia. I believe that placenames, and indeed </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">personal names, have interesting and widespread properties, both grammatical and </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">sociolinguistic, which make them deserving of linguists’ attention.</FONT><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">References </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Algeo, John. 1973. On Defining the Proper Name. Gainesville: University of Florida </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Press. </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Ashley, Leonard R. N. 1996. Amerindian toponyms in the United States. Namenforschung </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">/ Name Studies / Les Noms Propres, ed. by Eichler, 1401-1408. Berlin: de Gruyter. </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Basso, Keith H. 1996. Landscape and Language among the Western Apache. Albuquerque: </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">University of New Mexico Press. </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Bright, William. 1957. The Karuk Language. University of California Studies in </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Linguistics 13. Berkeley: University of California Press. </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Bright, William. (ed.) 1992. International Encyclopedia of Linguistics. New York: Oxford </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">University Press. </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Bright, William. 2002. The NAPUS (Native American Placenames of the United States) </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Project: Principles and problems. Making Dictionaries: Preserving Indigenous </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Languages of the Americas, ed. by William Frawley et al., 322-335. Berkeley: </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">University of California Press. </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Eichler, Ernst, et al. (eds.) 1996. Namenforschung / Name Studies / Les Noms Propres. </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">3 vols. Handbücher zur Sprach- und Kommunikationswissenschaft 11. Berlin: de </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Gruyter. </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Feld, Steven, and Keith H. Basso. (eds.) 1996. Senses of Place. Santa Fe, NM: School </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">of American Research Press. </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Ge</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica">̄</SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">de</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica">̄</SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">ng (</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">戈登</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">). 1989. Jia</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family: Helvetica">̄</SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">zho</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica">̄</SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">u Dìmíng Zìdia</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica">̌</SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">n. Táibe</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica">̌</SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">i: Liánji</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica">̄</SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">ng. [Chinese translation of </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">the following by Ma</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica">̌</SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> Quánzho</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica">̄</SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">ng.] </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Gudde, Erwin G. 1969. California Place Names: The Origin and Etymology of Current </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Geographical Names (3rd edition). Berkeley: University of California Press. [4th </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">edition, ed. by W. Bright, 1999.] </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Lamarque, P. V. 1994. Names and descriptions. Encyclopedia of Language and </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Linguistics, ed. by R. E. Asher, 2667-2672. Oxford: Pergamon. </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family: Helvetica"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Lehrer, Adrienne. 1992. Names and naming: Why we need fields and frames. Frames, </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Fields, and Contrasts: New Essays in Semantic and Lexical Organization, ed. by </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">A. Lehrer and E. F. Kittay, 123-142. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Lehrer, Adrienne. 1994. Proper names: Linguistic aspects. Encyclopedia of Language </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">and Linguistics, vol.6, ed. by R. E. Asher, 3372-3374. Oxford: Pergamon. </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">León-Portilla, Miguel. 1982. Los nombres de lugar en náhuatl: Su morfología, sintaxis </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">y representación glífica. Estudios de Cultura Náhuatl 15:37-72. </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Martin, Jack B., and Margaret McKane Mauldin. 2000. A Dictionary of Creek/Muskogee, </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">with Notes on the Florida and Oklahoma Seminole Dialects of Creek. Lincoln, NE: </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">University of Nebraska Press.</FONT><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Menn, Lise, and Brian MacWhinney. 1984. The repeated morph constraint: Towards an </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">explanation. Language 60:419-541. </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Tooker, Elisabeth. (ed.) 1984. Naming Systems: Proceedings of the American Ethnological </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Society 1980. Washington, DC: American Ethnological Society. </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Waterman, T. T. 1920. Yurok Geography. University of California Publications in </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">American Archaeology and Ethnology 16.5:177-314. Berkeley: University of </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">California Press. </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Wilson, Alan. 1995. Navajo Place Names. Guilford, CT: Jeffrey Norton. </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Zabeeh, Farhang. 1968. What Is in a Name? An Inquiry into the Semantics and </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Pragmatics of Proper Names. The Hague: Nijhoff. </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">[Received 26 February 2003; revised 14 April 2003; accepted 21 April 2003] </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">1625 Mariposa Avenue </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Boulder, CO 80302 </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">USA </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><A href="mailto:William.Bright@colorado.edu">William.Bright@colorado.edu</A> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">What IS a Name? Reflections on Onomastics </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">681 </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">名為何物</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Monaco"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Monaco">?</FONT></SPAN>──<SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">我對專名學的看法</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Monaco"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">William Bright (</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">威廉</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">•</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">布萊特</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">) </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">科羅拉多大學</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Monaco"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">專名學是包含哲學、歷史學等許多學門關心的、研究專有名詞的學問。</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6"> </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">本文採用的是應用於北美印第安人名、地名研究的人類語言學的觀點。本文</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6"> </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">提出了一個問題</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">:</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">「專有名詞可不可以是描述性的詞語</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">?</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">」。例如</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">,</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">字面意</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6"> </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">義為</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">住在溪邊的人</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">的詞可不可以是個人名</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">,</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">而</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">溪邊的石頭</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">可不可以</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6"> </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">是個地名</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">?</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">此外</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">,</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">本文同時以加州的</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Karuk</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">語、奧克拉荷馬州的</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Creek</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">語與</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6"> </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">墨西哥的</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">Nahuatl</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">語的例子討論地名的語法特點。</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6"> </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">關鍵詞</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">:</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">專名學</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">,</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">地名</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">,</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">人名</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">,</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">北美印第安人</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6"> </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"> </FONT></SPAN></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">「你很悲傷</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">,</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">」騎士擔心地說</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">:</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">「讓我唱首歌來安慰你。」</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">「這首歌很長嗎</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">?</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">」愛麗絲問道</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">,</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">因為她這一天已經聽</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"Apple LiSung Light""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Apple LiSung Light">夠</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">了詩了。</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">「是很長</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">,</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">」騎士回答</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">:</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">「不過非常、非常美。每個聽我唱的人不是熱淚盈</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6"> </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">眶</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">,</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">就是</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">...</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">」</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">「就是怎樣</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">?</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">」愛麗絲問</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">,</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">因為騎士突然停了下來。</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">「就是沒有熱淚盈眶</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">,</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">你知道的。這首歌名叫</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">黑線鱈的眼睛</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">。」</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">「喔。那是這首歌的名字</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">,</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">是吧</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">?</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">」愛麗絲說</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">,</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">想盡力表現出感興趣的樣</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6"> </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">子。</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">「不</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">,</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">你不懂</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">,</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">」騎士看起來有點惱</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">:</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">「那是它被稱呼的名字。它真正的名</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6"> </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">字是</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">一個很老很老的人</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">”</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">。」</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">「那麼我應該說</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">:</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">『那是這首歌被稱呼的名字』</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">?</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">」愛麗絲更正自己。</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">「不</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">,</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">你不該</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">,</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">那根本是另一回事</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">!</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">這首歌叫做</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">方法與手段</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">”,</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">但那只是</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6"> </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">人們對它的稱呼而已</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">,</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">你知道的</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">!</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">」</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">「</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"Apple LiSung Light""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Apple LiSung Light">嗯</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">,</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">那這首歌到底是什麼</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family: Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">?</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">」這時愛麗絲已經完全被弄糊塗了。</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">「我正要說</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">,</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">」騎士說</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">:</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">「這首歌其實是</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">“</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">坐在大門上</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman">”,</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">旋律是我自己創</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6"> </FONT><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><P class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">作的。」</FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6"> </FONT></SPAN><SPAN style="font-family:Helvetica"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6"><O:P></O:P></FONT></SPAN></P><DIV class="MsoNormal"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Times-Roman"><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="Helvetica">──</FONT></FONT><SPAN style="font-family:"ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6""><FONT class="Apple-style-span" face="ヒラギノ明朝 Pro W6">《鏡中奇緣》</FONT></SPAN><O:P></O:P></DIV></BODY></HTML>