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<p>Eduardo Rivail Ribeiro thought you might be interested in this item from the LINGUIST List<br>
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Eduardo Rivail Ribeiro says ...<br>
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Aos que já leram esta resenha, minhas desculpas pela repetição.<br>
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Message1: A Grammar of Urarina<br>
Date:17-Jun-<wbr>2008<br>
From:Carolina González <a href="mailto:sauce%40euskalnet.net">sauce@euskalnet.<wbr>net</a><br>
LINGUIST List issue <a href="http://linguistlist.org/issues/19/19-1916.html">http://linguistlist<wbr>.org/issues/<wbr>19/19-1916.<wbr>html</a> <br>
<br>
Announced at <a href="http://linguistlist.org/issues/18/18-35.html">http://linguistlist<wbr>.org/issues/<wbr>18/18-35.<wbr>html</a> <br>
<br>
AUTHOR: Olawsky, Knut J.<br>
TITLE: A Grammar of Urarina<br>
SERIES: Mouton Grammar Library 37<br>
PUBLISHER: Mouton de Gruyter<br>
YEAR: 2006<br>
<br>
Carolina González, Department of Modern Languages and Linguistics, Florida State<br>
University<br>
<br>
SUMMARY<br>
This book is a comprehensive study of Urarina (previously known as Shimacu or<br>
Tucale), an Amazonian language spoken by between 2,000 and 3,000 speakers in the<br>
area of Rio Chambira (Loreto, Peru). Since its lexicon and many of its<br>
grammatical characteristics differ from those of neighboring languages, it is<br>
considered a language isolate. As other languages in the area, it is endangered<br>
by the inroads made by Spanish, which is impacting its lexicon and some aspects<br>
of the phonology.<br>
<br>
Olawsky's description of the language is based on his fieldwork in Nueva Unión,<br>
a remote area with about 100 speakers of Urarina, for over five years. It<br>
includes data from 126 recorded texts, in addition to elicitation from native<br>
Urarina speakers and New Testament translations. Statistics regarding the<br>
frequency of sounds, word classes and grammatical constructions come from a<br>
lexical database of 3,650 entries compiled by the author.<br>
<br>
The book is over 900 pages long and divided into 23 chapters. Chapter 1<br>
introduces Urarina, the scope and methodology of the investigation, and some of<br>
the unusual typological characteristics of this language. These include its<br>
OVA/VS constituent order, the existence of a three-way distinction for person<br>
marking in all verbs, and the importance of word length in its phonology and<br>
morpho-phonology. Chapters 2-4 describe the phonology and morpho-phonology of<br>
the language, and chapters 5-21 its morphology and syntax. The two last chapters<br>
are devoted to discourse strategies and linguistic variation, respectively.<br>
<br>
Urarina has 16 consonantal phonemes, five phonemic vowels, and four diphthongs<br>
(Chapter 2). Long vowels, although rare, are contrastive, as are nasal vowels.<br>
The most common syllable structure is CV. Onsets are optional, and codas are not<br>
allowed, except for [h]. Monosyllabic words are attested, and most of them have<br>
long vowels or diphthongs. However, most words are polysyllabic, and there is a<br>
tendency for nominal and verbal roots to be three syllables long. Phonological<br>
phenomena include rightward nasal assimilation, which targets vowels and [h];<br>
vowel copying; post-vocalic aspiration before voiceless and lateral consonants,<br>
and insertion of the glottal stop before two identical vowels when the first<br>
vowel is short and the second long.<br>
<br>
Chapter 3 discusses some aspects of the morpho-phonology of Urarina. Several<br>
morphemes undergo alternations between vowel initial and onset initial<br>
allomorphs, which tend to be velar stops or palatal affricates, or<br>
shortening/lengthen<wbr>ing of vowels across certain morphological boundaries. One<br>
interesting characteristic is that several alternations seem sensitive to word<br>
length and syllable weight. For example, the nominal plural marker -kuru occurs<br>
after trisyllabic roots, and the allomorph -uru elsewhere. However, -kuru is<br>
also found in monosyllabic and disyllabic roots with a CVV syllable, and also<br>
occasionally on quadrisyllabic roots.<br>
<br>
Chapter 4 outlines the major tonal features of Urarina, which is described as a<br>
pitch accent language contrasting high and low tone. Each morpheme has maximally<br>
one tone, and most final syllables have high tone. Nouns fall into four tonal<br>
classes, depending on the tonal effect they have on the verb, adjective or<br>
postposition to their immediate right; verbs fall into three different classes.<br>
Tonal classes are partly based on word length and syllable structure. Tone is<br>
also connected to syntactic structure; for example, each constituent tends to<br>
have only one high tone. Stress is not analyzed in detail, but two facts noted<br>
are that it correlates with higher amplitude/intensity<wbr>, and that syllables with<br>
long vowels attract it.<br>
<br>
Chapter 5 introduces Urarina word classes, considered in detail in subsequent<br>
chapters. Urarina is a verb-prominent language, which is typologically unusual<br>
(over 55% of words are verbs and 30% nouns). Verbs differ from nouns in that (i)<br>
they take arguments (ii) they are inflected for many categories, not just person<br>
and number, and (iii) their citation form ends in /a/, while that of nouns can<br>
end in any vowel. Verbs and nouns are linked by derivational processes of<br>
verbalization and nominalization, as discussed in chapter 10.<br>
<br>
Demonstratives and pronouns are subtypes of nouns. Demonstratives indicate three<br>
degrees of spatial reference and can be used as nominal heads. They can combine<br>
morphologically with other elements that indicate location and direction.<br>
Pronouns, marked for person and number, are used for emphasis and are optional.<br>
Adverbs refer to the categories of time, place, manner, degree and epistemics.<br>
Except for time adverbs, they are derived from verbs through the participle<br>
suffix, and generally, they precede and modify verbs. Adjectives are always<br>
derived and do not seem to form an independent class. <br>
<br>
Other categories in Urarina include postpositions (usually indicating location<br>
or temporal concepts); conjunctions (subordinate or coordinating, and always<br>
clausal or sentential); interrogatives; and clause introducers (of clause type,<br>
negation, or mood). Since clause introducers co-occur with verbal morphology<br>
they seem to form a distinct word class, which is typologically unusual.<br>
Quantifiers, interjections and ideophones (onomatopoeic words) are also<br>
discussed in this chapter.<br>
<br>
The morphology of Urarina is complex, and is mostly nominal or verbal. However,<br>
it is somewhat flexible and not restricted to specific word classes. For<br>
example: multipurpose words are attested; some verbs are able to express<br>
semantic concepts not typically associated with verbs in other languages<br>
(enumeration, the verbs 'be like that', 'be in vain'), and morphology used for<br>
nouns or verbs can be assigned to other word classes.<br>
<br>
Chapter 6 covers the structure of noun phrases (NPs), and chapter 7 possession.<br>
There is a tendency for demonstratives, possessives and numerals to precede the<br>
head noun, while other types of modifiers, such as adjectives, can precede or<br>
follow it. Possessive pronouns and proclitics are common within the NP. The<br>
possessor precedes the possessed, and there is an optional possessive marker<br>
between both. At the clause level, the verb 'have' indicates closer or long-term<br>
possession, while the copula, used with free or bound pronouns and followed by<br>
the possessive marker -raj, indicates short-term position. Affixes indicating<br>
possessive derivation are attested but rare.<br>
<br>
Urarina seems to be in a transitional stage between synthetic and analytic use<br>
of possessives; a trend towards free pronouns can be observed. The distinction<br>
between alienable and inalienable possession (for body parts and kinship terms)<br>
is still maintained in the traditional language, but it is being lost in the<br>
innovative language.<br>
<br>
Chapter 8 focuses on number marking. Interestingly, the unmarked number seems to<br>
be the non-singular. Two different plural suffixes are used: one for most verbal<br>
forms, and another for nouns, postpositions, and verbs in the third person<br>
singular. Agreement between noun and verb is not obligatory, and plural marking<br>
tends to be optional, especially in the third person. Within the NP, nouns<br>
referring to humans are more likely to be marked for plural than other nouns, or<br>
than numerals. The first person plural is marked verbally for the exclusive,<br>
inclusive and dual; the last two tend to be neutralized in favor of the dual. In<br>
intransitive verbs indicating size, color and shape, a distinction is made among<br>
singular, dual, paucal, and plural.<br>
<br>
Verb classes are taken up in chapter 9. Urarina verbs can be transitive,<br>
intransitive, and reflexive (discussed in chapter 16). There are no<br>
ditransitives, and the only ambitransitive is the verb 'to burn'. The copulative<br>
verb ''nia'' indicates attribution, location, existence or temporary presence, and<br>
even possession (with the possessive marker -raj). Verbless clauses occur in<br>
questions involving demonstratives. Special verbs include interrogative verbs,<br>
enumeratives, and the verb 'to be in vain'.<br>
<br>
Transitive verbs have an obligatory object, unmarked in the third person.<br>
Intransitive verbs can be active, stative, or referring to position, shape, and<br>
color (PSC verbs). PSC and 'affect' transitive verbs -which refer to processes<br>
that reduce or change the shape, integrity or size of an object- follow a<br>
special derivational system for size (big or small) and various postures, shapes<br>
or colors. Stative verbs have a special plural suffix.<br>
<br>
Word formation (chapter 10) is as complex as in other Amazonian languages (p.<br>
430). Derivation changes word class and mainly results in nominalization of<br>
verbs and verbalization of nouns. The only exception is derivation used to<br>
create complex verbs. Five types of total reduplication are attested in verbs,<br>
with functions ranging from aspectual interpretation, spatial distributive, and<br>
motion. Some types are more common with PSC and 'affect' verbs and are<br>
distinguished for big and small items. Compounding, which always involves nouns,<br>
can be of nine types, each semantically different.<br>
<br>
Urarina boasts a distinction of three person inflection classes, named<br>
'D-forms', 'E-forms', and 'A-forms' (chapter 11). These inflection classes are<br>
expressed morphologically by separate sets of person markers (especially for<br>
first/third person singular) and by differences in mood and polarity. 'D-forms'<br>
are obligatory in finite dependent clauses. 'A-forms', so called because the<br>
third person singular is -a, are used in greetings, citation forms, polar<br>
questions, and with the negative introducer ''kwatia'' 'don't'. 'E-forms', so<br>
called because the third person singular is -e, are used in sentences with focus<br>
markers, and are also typical in narrative styles, and after or before dependent<br>
clauses.<br>
<br>
Chapter 12 covers verbal morphology. Urarina is a highly polysynthetic language<br>
with a rich morphological system for verbs. Only one prefixal position occurs,<br>
which can be occupied by the intransitivizing prefix ne- or the 1st /2nd<br>
singular object proclitic. In contrast, 17 suffixal slots are identified: (1)<br>
causative (intransitive)<wbr>, (2) causative (intransitive/<wbr>transitive)<wbr>, (3)<br>
impossibility, (4) continuous aspect, (5) impersonal passive, (6) habitual<br>
aspect, (7) distributive/<wbr>plural object, (8) velocity/politeness<wbr>, (9)<br>
diminutive/counter-<wbr>expectation, (10) completive aspect, (11) in-law talk<br>
(politeness)<wbr>, (12) plural (1st person), (13) epistemic modality/probabilit<wbr>y,<br>
(14) mood/future tense, (15) negation, (16) person, and (17) 2nd person plural.<br>
The maximum number of filled slots attested in the language is six, although on<br>
average only between two and four verbal positions are filled.<br>
<br>
Verbal slots are followed by enclitic positions, which are unstressed and can<br>
attach to non-verbal words. Seven enclitic positions are identified: (18)<br>
politeness, (19) assertive, (20) witness evidential, (21) reportative<br>
evidential/remotene<wbr>ss, (22) reassurance, (23) negative question/ interrogative,<br>
and (24) attitude/emotion/<wbr>rhetorical question.<br>
<br>
Politeness in Urarina (chapter 13) is gender/family related, and does not depend<br>
on context. It is obligatorily expressed in conversations between members of the<br>
opposite sex or between male in-law, and in reference to people within specific<br>
in-law relations. The latter, expressed with the verbal suffix -ana, is<br>
typologically rare. Other expressions of politeness are optional.<br>
<br>
Negation is expressed grammatically with a varied range of strategies (chapter<br>
14). Negative verbal suffixes have different allomorphs for different moods.<br>
Negative interjections, conjunctions and clause introducers are also common.<br>
Some of these clause introducers involve both a clause-initial particle and a<br>
final negative marker; the latter are incompatible with negative inflection.<br>
Interrogative pronouns are used negatively as indefinite pronouns or negative<br>
quantifiers. The negative copula expresses an adverbial function, meaning 'not<br>
at all' when it co-occurs with a negative verb. The scope of negation is<br>
clausal, and several negative strategies can be employed in the same clause,<br>
which reinforces negativity.<br>
<br>
The imperative is a separate clause type in Urarina (chapter 15). Also marked<br>
for number and person, it has different forms for the 2nd person (positive<br>
imperative), 1st person singular (hortative) and 3rd person (jussive). The<br>
imperative cannot occur in dependent clauses; but a clause that follows an<br>
imperative clause might be interpreted as dependent and consecutive to it. <br>
<br>
Valency changing mechanisms are discussed in chapter 16. Among the suffixes that<br>
may modify the valency of a verb are causatives: -a, which implies direct<br>
personal involvement of the causer, is not very productive and occurs in<br>
intransitive verbs only, while -erate, which implies indirect causation, is<br>
productive and may apply to both transitive and intransitive verbs. No separate<br>
passive form occurs in Urarina; rather, the passive is expressed via a<br>
nominalizer suffix on transitive verbs. The agent may occur before the<br>
passivized verb with no formal marking; constituent order indicates its<br>
function. Other valency changing suffixes are the reciprocal -ita, the<br>
intransitivizer -ne, and the valency increaser particle -ke.<br>
<br>
Serial verb constructions (chapter 17) are one-predicate structures that<br>
indicate direction or movement. Typically, they convey a point of change<br>
regarding a previous event, or an emphasis on motion or movement towards/away<br>
from the point of reference. They are formed by two adjacent verbs, both sharing<br>
the same subject and referring to one event (or part of an event). The first<br>
verb is the semantic head of the construction, is marked with the neutral marker<br>
-a, and can only host causative and continuous aspect morphemes. The second verb<br>
indicates the direction or result of the event, hosts all other verbal morphemes<br>
in the construction, and is typically the verb 'come', 'go', or 'wander around'.<br>
<br>
Urarina has a typologically rare constituent order: OVA in transitive clauses,<br>
and VS in intransitive ones (chapter 18). Since the O or S arguments are<br>
frequently omitted and are interpreted from context, especially in dependent<br>
clauses, the most common order is V (58%). The OVA constituent order occurs in<br>
21% of cases, and VS in 10% of cases. Other clause types (AOV, SV) make up 7% of<br>
cases; generally these involve focused structures and special forms such as<br>
negation and content questions.<br>
<br>
Adjuncts are optional and usually located in the periphery of main clauses.<br>
Post-positional phrases tend to occur before main verbs; in dependent clauses,<br>
they are only attested pre-verbally. Adverbs usually occupy the clause-initial<br>
position. Except for temporal adverbs, they don't require a focus marker.<br>
Locational adjuncts are also optional and occur pre-verbally with verbs like<br>
'go' or 'arrive', as do regular O arguments. Dependent clauses are usually<br>
placed before main clauses, unless they have a purposive or consecutive function.<br>
<br>
Prominence is marked in Urarina by focus (chapter 19); its most common function<br>
is contrastive focus, although topicality may also occur. Focus marking always<br>
involves the 'E-forms' on the verb, and an enclitic indicating co-reference with<br>
the subject: -ne or -na for the first person, and -te for all other persons. The<br>
enclitic attaches to an emphasized constituent in sentence-initial position, and<br>
fronting applies if the constituent is not sentence-initial. The focus enclitic<br>
carries high tone in most contexts and is typically followed by a pause. <br>
<br>
There is one focus marker per clause, and it is rare to find more than one focus<br>
marker per sentence. In principle, all constituents can be focused, although<br>
objects and serial verb constructions rarely are. The focusing of dependent<br>
clauses indicates special emphasis. In some instances NPs are focused with<br>
adjuncts, adverbs, or conjunctions; Olawsky suggests that in this case, both<br>
constituents share topic and focus.<br>
<br>
Multiclause constructions are discussed in chapter 20. Subordinated clauses,<br>
which generally appear before the main clause, involve D-marking and can host a<br>
limited number of suffixes and enclitics. They can be temporal/conditiona<wbr>l,<br>
complements, or participial. Complement clauses take the place of the O argument<br>
and are marked with the infinitive suffix -na (if the subject coincides with the<br>
main clause) or with -ne. Although both clauses can be introduced by verbs of<br>
linking, thinking, knowing, be afraid, -na clauses also occurs with verbs of<br>
ability and beginning/ending, and -ne classes with perception and saying verbs,<br>
and with 'must'. Other complementation strategies include the use of the<br>
complementizers, quotatives, and juxtaposition of questions.<br>
<br>
The participle clause is the most common type of dependent clause. It is<br>
non-finite and shares the same subject as the main clause. It is not restricted<br>
to any specific verb or class of verbs, and morphologically, it is marked with a<br>
suffix. Semantically, it is independent, and can have a range of functions,<br>
including adverbial modification, sequencing of events or actions, and<br>
overlapping events, actions or states. Although clause coordination is attested,<br>
it is not very common. Other coordinating strategies include ellipsis, finite<br>
clause juxtaposition and the use of adversative conjunction 'pero', loaned from<br>
Spanish.<br>
<br>
Questions are discussed in chapter 21. Content questions involve the 'E-form'<br>
and a fronted interrogative pronoun. Polar questions require the 'A-form', have<br>
a declarative constituent order, and are marked intonationally by a pitch rise<br>
towards the end of the question. Negative questions are introduced with special<br>
clause-initial forms; negative, clause final markers also occur. Rhetorical<br>
questions indicate surprise or curiosity, and are marked with the 'A-form' and a<br>
sentence-final enclitic. Indirect questions do not differ from direct questions.<br>
They are expressed as independent clauses, juxtaposed to the main clause, and<br>
have the same constituent order of the main clause.<br>
<br>
Chapter 22 outlines the main discourse strategies used in narratives.<br>
Phonologically, ideophones and consonant gemination are used to emphasize<br>
dramatic events; extra lengthening of long vowels conveys intensity.<br>
Morphologically, the 'E-form' is used, due to the abundance of clauses with<br>
focus markers. Reduplication and triplication of verbal roots are used to convey<br>
liveliness. Syntactically, ellipsis of arguments and quotative verbs is common.<br>
Verbs can be repeated iconically to convey emphasis on the continuity of the<br>
action or the event. Long sentences with many dependent clauses are also common,<br>
as well as clause chaining, where events are related to each other by chaining<br>
the last and the first clause of adjacent sentences.<br>
<br>
Reference tracking is problematic in discourse because Urarina lacks any formal<br>
marking for switch-reference and has no syntactic pivot. Together with omitted<br>
arguments, this results in ambiguity. In discourse, switch reference can be<br>
indicated by (i) the insertion of the relevant NP, which is rare; (ii) the use<br>
of the demonstrative ''nii'' instead of an NP; (iii) subject marking on the verb;<br>
(iv) the context; (v) certain conjunctions, and (vi) ideophonic discourse<br>
particles, especially when the quotative verb ''naa'' is omitted.<br>
<br>
The final chapter discusses dialectal variation and some of the differences<br>
between traditional and innovative language. Four dialectal areas are<br>
distinguished: Western dialects (including Tigrillo and Espejo), lower Chambira,<br>
Upper Chambira (the largest dialect area), and the Corrientes River. The main<br>
differences among these dialects, all of them mutually intelligible, are<br>
phonological and lexical. Olawsky makes a distinction between traditional vs.<br>
innovative language; the first is not used by younger speakers. The innovative<br>
language tends to neutralize certain phonemic contrasts and leans towards a more<br>
analytic morphology. It lacks some attitudinal markers still used in the<br>
traditional language, and is also losing the contrast between alienable and<br>
inalienable possession. Syntactically, it shows the use of other types of<br>
subordinate clauses, involving non-finite verb forms of verbs with temporal<br>
conjunctions.<br>
<br>
The book includes several appendixes. Appendix A glosses five texts, which are<br>
available in audio form in the enclosed CD-Rom. Appendix B is a list of<br>
scientific names, and appendix C includes some pictures of the Urarina. A list<br>
of references and an index follow.<br>
<br>
EVALUATION<br>
This is a comprehensive description of the phonology, morphology and syntax of a<br>
little known Amazonian language, and should be of interest to typologists and<br>
linguists interested in Amazonian and Native American languages. Olawsky's<br>
description of Urarina is objective, clearly written, and extremely detailed,<br>
and it provides multiple examples of all sounds, morphemes, word classes and<br>
syntactic constructions discussed. Although the description may seem daunting<br>
(it is over 900 pages long), the organization and clarity of the writing make it<br>
more manageable. Each chapter outlines the main topics, and then discusses each<br>
in detail with the help of glosses, summary tables, and statistical information.<br>
Cross-reference also helps the reader to refer to other sections or chapters<br>
were more or related information is given about a particular topic.<br>
<br>
Perhaps one of the most intriguing issues that Urarina poses is its relationship<br>
to other Amazonian languages. Although previous authors classify Urarina as<br>
Panoan, Tupian, Macro-Tucanoan, or Andean (see Dean 1994 and references<br>
therein), Olawsky considers Urarina an unclassified language, based on its<br>
unusual typological characteristics and differing lexicon from neighboring<br>
languages. One intriguing feature of Urarina not discussed in this book is the<br>
similarity of its phonology and morpho-phonology to that of Panoan languages.<br>
Urarina has various phonological and morphophonological phenomena that Olawsky<br>
describes as partly dependent on word length; in Panoan, several phenomena seem<br>
based on syllable count (Loos 1999). For example, Urarina has an optional<br>
process of postvocalic aspiration that resembles that described for Huariapano<br>
(aka Panobo, Gordon 2005) in Parker (1994). Panobo was once spoken close to<br>
Urarina (p.8). In both languages, aspiration occurs before voiceless consonants;<br>
in Urarina, it may occur before laterals as well. Aspiration occurs on non-high<br>
toned syllables in Urarina, only once per root, usually in the first syllable.<br>
It is in no case attested in two syllables in a row. Similar restrictions are<br>
found in Huariapano, where aspiration occurs in odd-numbered syllables counting<br>
from the beginning of the word (Parker 1994). Hopefully, more research will help<br>
elucidate the extent to which Urarina is connected to Panoan and other languages<br>
in the Amazonian region.<br>
<br>
REFERENCES<br>
Dean, B. 1994. The poetics of creation: Urarina cosmogony and historical<br>
consciousness. _Latin American Indian Literatures Journal. Review of American<br>
Indian Texts and Studies_, Vol 10 (1): 22-45.<br>
<br>
Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (ed.), 2005. _Ethnologue: Languages of the World_, 15th<br>
edition. Dallas, Tex.: SIL International. Online version:<br>
<a href="http://www.ethnologue.com/.">http://www.ethnolog<wbr>ue.com/.</a><br>
<br>
Loos, E.E. 1999. Pano. In R.M. W. Dixon and Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald (eds.), _The<br>
Amazonian languages_. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 227-250.<br>
<br>
Parker, Steve. 1994. Coda epenthesis in Huariapano. _International Journal of<br>
American Linguistics_ 60 (2): 95-119.<br>
<br>
ABOUT THE REVIEWER <br>
Carolina Gonzalez (Ph.D., Linguistics, University of Southern California) is an<br>
Assistant Professor of Spanish and Linguistics in the Department of Modern<br>
Languages and Linguistics at Florida State University. She specializes in<br>
phonetics and phonology and is interested in rhythmically-<wbr>based consonantal<br>
phenomena, Amazonian languages (especially Panoan), and Spanish dialects. <br>
<br>
Also you can take a look at it by visiting <br>
<a href="http://linguistlist.org/issues/19/19-1916.html">http://linguistlist<wbr>.org/issues/<wbr>19/19-1916.<wbr>html</a><br>
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