<div class="widget Header" id="Header1">
<div id="header-inner">
<div class="titlewrapper">
<h1 class="title"><a href="http://johangijsen.blogspot.com/"><font color="#000000">Talking Taiwanese</font></a> </h1></div>
<div class="descriptionwrapper">
<p class="description"><span>Flemish reflections on Taiwanese language education</span></p></div></div></div>
<div class="widget Blog" id="Blog1">
<div class="blog-posts hfeed">
<h2 class="date-header">8/02/2007</h2>
<div class="post hentry uncustomized-post-template"><a name="136843443982363074"></a>
<h3 class="post-title entry-title"><a href="http://johangijsen.blogspot.com/2007/08/taiwan-and-spain-language-comparison.html"><font color="#000000">Taiwan and Spain: a language comparison</font></a> </h3>
<div class="post-header-line-1"></div>
<div class="post-body entry-content">
<p><a href="http://bp3.blogger.com/_K7XlzBl0DHc/RrH9EBZQaYI/AAAAAAAAADU/z7VYvp42RKA/s1600-h/GaliciaMap_293x280_1.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5094130899068414338" style="FLOAT: left; MARGIN: 0px 10px 10px 0px; CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="http://bp3.blogger.com/_K7XlzBl0DHc/RrH9EBZQaYI/AAAAAAAAADU/z7VYvp42RKA/s200/GaliciaMap_293x280_1.jpg" border="0">
</a><br>We might want to pay closer attention to European regions applying mother tongue immersion education. Research conducted in Galicia (see map) has shown that bilingually-instructed children (in the Galician "dialect" as well as in the Spanish language) achieved higher scores in the tested subjects, including Spanish. A surprising result, considering that their exposure to Spanish was much less than in the traditional Spanish-only classrooms (Lecours 2001). More recent evaluations of Galicia's mother tongue and immersion language programs illustrate that the gains of the bilingually-educated children continue to hold, but only when the program is well implemented (Mercator).
<br><br>From 1939 until 1975, the use of Galician was forbidden in schools and it took Galicia no more than eight years to put the Galician language on equal (50/50) footing with Spanish in primary schools. Research also shows that when the teacher speaks and uses the native language of the children, has received training in bilingual teaching methodologies, and has adequate materials, the children clearly outperform Spanish-only educated children in both mathematics and Spanish (Mercator).
<br><br>Should we, in Taiwan, care about a far-away region somewhere in the northwest of Spain? I believe the following brief comparison provides the answer to this question and might also illustrate why I am convinced we are not safeguarding the Taiwanese language. I have done an effort to keep this comparison relatively short. For those interested, send me an email and I will forward you a more detailed chart.
<br><br>15 POINTS OF COMPARISON BETWEEN GALICIAN AND TAIWANESE <br><br>Population Galicia: 3.2 million <br>Population Taiwan: 22.8 million<br><br>1. Taiwanese and Galician are languages of the home. 42% of Galicians claim to use Galician as their first language used at home. This compares with over 70% for Taiwanese.
<br><br>2. Taiwanese and Galician are spoken mostly by bilinguals (Taiwanese/Mandarin and Galician/Spanish); Mandarin and Spanish are both major world languages.<br><br>3. Taiwanese and Galician were officially prohibited up to the late seventies, but everyday use was allowed in the home and the marketplace. Under the dictatorship of Francisco Franco (1939-1975) even in private, using Galician was a punishable offence. As a result, very few children born during this era grew up using Galician. Interestingly, a 1997 study at the University of Vigo shows that Galician students have fewer difficulties to speak Galician in comparison with the University's teaching and administrative staff.
<br><br>4. Both languages are stigmatized: especially the poor and the rich believe that speaking Taiwanese and Galician implies a lack of education, lower socioeconomic status, and a rural upbringing (Baran 2005). The middle classes tend stigmatize Taiwanese / Galician less. The poorer and richer Galicians / Taiwanese are still influenced by the mistaken belief, popularized by Franco and the old KMT respectively, that their mother tongues were "only" a dialect of Spanish / Mandarin, while in fact, Spanish (Castilian) itself is a dialect of Hispanic languages, and Mandarin one dialect of the Han languages.
<br><br>5. Both Galician and Taiwanese people lack familiarity with the Galician and Taiwanese written systems. Galician can be written by using the Portuguese writing system with some adaptations; Taiwanese can be written by using Mandarin characters with some adaptations. Recently, a Romanized system for writing Taiwanese has been officially endorsed.
<br><br>6. In Galician society, English is thought to have as much prestige as (the official language) Spanish. In Taiwanese society, English is thought to have even higher prestige as (the official language) Mandarin. Galician and Taiwanese have considerably less prestige than English in Galicia and Taiwan respectively. In Galicia, this perception is countered by the importance attached to Galicia in education. In Taiwan, this perception is strengthened by the relative insignificance of Taiwanese in education (when comparing mother tongue education in both societies).
<br><br>7. Students in Taiwan believe only Mandarin and English to be really essential to compete for a job; students in Galicia believe that only Spanish and English are useful for this purpose. In Galicia, more people believe that English will help in finding a job than the Galician language will. Galician people are split evenly over the question whether knowing Galician has an impact on finding a job. This is surprising considering the fact that Galician, apart from being the official language in Galicia, has a compulsory presence in education and administration. It should therefore be perceived as essential to many jobs in Galicia. Students in Taiwan also consider that only Mandarin and English to be useful in finding a job. But the Taiwan public is quite unanimous on the question whether proficiency in Taiwanese has an impact on finding work: they do not believe so. The all-important difference is that the government in Taiwan follows the conviction of the people by not giving urgency to Taiwanese mother tongue education; in Galicia, notwithstanding the people's belief that their mother tongue is inferior to Spanish and English, the government is implementing fully bilingual Galician/Spanish language programs.
<br><br>8. Over three quarters of Galicians say they believe that the Spanish central government is quite negative toward the Galician language (with 33% saying the Madrid government to be "very negative"). Despite Galicia's high degree of autonomy from Madrid, it is difficult to divide the access to power of Galician and Spanish (Castilian) speakers. Despite the current situation in Taiwan (which has a pro-Taiwan government), it remains difficult to clearly divide the access to power of Taiwanese and Mandarin speakers. In Galicia, the pro-autonomous (pro-Galicia) movement has made the local Galician language a top priority in its dealings with Madrid. The Taiwanese language, as well as other indigenous languages on Taiwan, are not the top priority of the Taiwan government.
<br><br>9. The Galician public does not believe that their official institutions, whether social, financial or political, score very high in the amount of support they provide for the Galician language. The highest support, Galicians perceive, comes from the autonomous government of Galicia (with just over 50%). The Spanish government is seen as providing very little support (16%), which is not surprising considering the historically strong tensions over language issues between Galicia and Madrid. Similar figures for Taiwan are unavailable, but there is widespread frustration (albeit for various reasons and by different groups) about the Taipei government handling of mother tongue education. Whether people are more satisfied with local government support for mother tongue education has yet to be researched.
<br><br>10. In Galicia, Galician is the second or third (behind English) language of choice after Spanish; in Taiwan, Taiwanese is the third or fourth (behind a second foreign) language of choice after Mandarin and English. In Galicia, research shows that the students start showing some concern over Galicia "only" being a third language. Further data also show that English has made powerful inroads into Galician society and economy. One must therefore wonder what potential impact the rise of English as the second language of choice will have on the acquisition and use of Galician. In Taiwan, no such concern is voiced by neither public nor academics: everyone seems willing to jump on the "English second language" bandwagon without asking the relevant questions, and willing to offer money, time, and probably their own cultural identity to do so.
<br><br>11. The Galician society shows little acknowledgment of the responsibility it should shoulder in improving the low status of the Galician language. People here do not consider this their responsibility, rather that of the autonomous Galician government and, at the international level, the European Union – from which Galicia receives substantial financial support. The situation in Taiwan is identical: four out of five students judge that it is the national government in Taipei which is responsible for the maintenance of Taiwanese. The remaining twenty percent expressed not to have any opinion, rather than to recognize that supporting a mother tongue has to start of at grass-roots level, the home and the local communities and schools. Even if Taipei had a workable plan to save Taiwan's indigenous languages, the Taiwan public must recognize that the government itself will never be able to single-handedly rescue Taiwanese and Taiwan's other mother tongues. The most Taipei will ever be able to do is to provide a foundation of legal and financial support for Taiwan's minority languages, and to help foster the conditions for its use within Taiwan. The local communities themselves will be responsible for language planning from the bottom-up, for creating native speakers and for providing social networks whose existence will depend on the use of Taiwanese and other mother tongues.
<br><br>12. Galician has been recognized as an "exceptional linguistic situation" within Spain as a result of its particularly pronounced diglossia, in which Galician is the language of the home for a majority of Galicians, while Spanish (Castilian) is used almost exclusively in the public sphere. Spain hereby allows the "territory principle" to govern Galicia (as well as Catalonia and the Basque Country). This principle is equally applied in countries like Switzerland (where it originated from) and Belgium (where it part and parcel of a federal governing system). Within Taiwan, voices are heard asking for such system to be applied to certain regions, in particular in central and southern Taiwan. The problem, however, is that Taiwan's linguistic situation is different from those regions applying the territory principle. Research has shown that linguistically, the Taiwan public is bilingual rather than diglossic (Gijsen et al. 2004). A further obstacle to implementing the territory principle to one or several "special" regions within Taiwan would be the resistance by native language speakers (
e.g. Taiwanese, Hakka) within those regions. The public here might consider such policy to be counterproductive to, for example, children learning English or Mandarin. After all, if their local government would make the local "dialect" compulsory in schools, as is the case in European regions applying the territory principle, people might consider the extra pressure on their children as "unfair". Time would be, according to many, much better spent on the study of English. The Galicians, Catalonians, and other European communities have been activists (at times not without violence) in demanding to be subjected to the territory principle. Such demands are far and between in Taiwan, with the exception of academics familiar with and hopeful for the same European system for Taiwan. A handful of Hakka activists demonstrating in front of the Taipei legislature is still a far cry from mobilizing most Hakka to be active in first trying to change their language situation at home or in their local community – which is where all European linguistically autonomous regions started their campaign. The broader Taiwan public simply does not crave for more mother tongue education.
<br><br>13. In 1981 Galicia gained its "Autonomy Statute" from the Madrid Government. This Statute declared Galician to be "Galicia's own language" and gave it the status of an official language alongside Spanish (Castilian). The Statute furthermore granted all citizens the right to know and use Galician, and stipulated that the Galician Government must guarantee its use in all areas of activity and promote the knowledge of it. In Taiwan, Taiwanese is spoken in most parts of the island, with the exception of the central mountain range, as well as Hsinchu county and the central-western seaboard. Any Statute similar to that of Galicia seems, arguably, not feasible for Taiwan: within the predominantly Taiwanese-speaking areas, the population is not linguistically homogenous. As for an "own language", modeled on the Galician model: Taiwan has apparently adopted what is known as the "personality principle", bestowing each person with the "right to use his or her language". This falls far short of full official status for Taiwanese or other indigenous languages. No mechanism exists to ensure the use of Taiwanese in all areas; neither is the Government obliged to promote the knowledge of Taiwanese – disregarding on purpose its ineffective weekly hour in "homeland education".
<br><br>14. In 1983, the Galician Linguistic Standardization Act of 1983 declared Galician to be the official language of the regional administration and its associated bodies. This granted citizens the right to fall back on laws to safeguard their linguistic rights. It contained provisions relating to the promotion of Galician culture, to the media, to the use of Galician in dealings between the regional administration and the public, to its use in the judicial system and within local authorities and with regard to place names. It also stipulated that Galician must be taught as a compulsory subject at all levels of education. The number of hours given to the study of Galician had to be equal to those given to the study of Spanish (Castilian), with the aim of making pupils equally competent in both languages by the end of their studies. Unlike the Galician Autonomy Statute, a Linguistic Standardization Act for Taiwanese, the mother tongue of over 70 percent of people on Taiwan, is feasible. The two most significant hurdles to overcome, however, would be: a. the Government showing sufficient urgency and political courage to implement the Act, and b. people at grassroots level, together with the local institutions as well the national Government taking concrete action (
e.g. information campaigns in local communities, national media) to convince the public of the medium- to long-term advantages of mother tongue education. Shortly after its introduction, polls in Galicia showed that over 30% of the public (most of whom were Spanish-only speakers) stood "very skeptical" toward the Linguistic Standardization Act. Some thirty years later, even Spanish (Castilian)-only speaking parents are sending their children to Galician schools to receive even (immersion) language education in both official languages. It remains to be seen whether any Government (whether the reigns of power would change or not) will have the needed audacity and insight to take similar steps. The most outspoken opponents, it might be expected, would be Mandarin-only speaking parents and pupils, politically fervent nationalists, "mandarized" Taiwanese who have been raised bilingually with the emphasis strongly on Mandarin Chinese, and – significantly – those Taiwanese who consider their mother tongue to be inferior and who therefore opt for a Mandarin/English bilingual education. I believe most members of the Government, principally the Ministry of Education, to fall under the latter category. Notwithstanding numerous statements, merely backed up by unproductive language education guidelines and statements of good intent toward Taiwan's indigenous languages, the Government's language policy has failed.
<br><br>15. Galician and Taiwanese are spoken outside Spain and Taiwan respectively: Galician in Argentina, Taiwanese in Southern China and Singapore <br><br>REFERENCES<br><br>Lecours, A. (2001). Regionalism, Cultural Diversity and the State in Spain. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development (3) 22, 210-226.
<br><br>NSC-project 92-2411-H-214-001; Gijsen, Liu, Tsai<br><br>Language Ideologies and Education in Taiwan . Journal Article for a special issue of the International Journal of the Sociology of Language . Editor: Robert Cheng . 2005
<br></p></div></div></div></div><br clear="all"><br>-- <br>**************************************<br>N.b.: Listing on the lgpolicy-list is merely intended as a service to its members<br>and implies neither approval, confirmation nor agreement by the owner or sponsor of
<br>the list as to the veracity of a message's contents. Members who disagree with a <br>message are encouraged to post a rebuttal. (H. Schiffman, Moderator)<br>*******************************************