<h1>Influence of Cameroon pidgin-english of the linguistic : Who is mbout or tchop -broke-pot !</h1>
<p class="auteur">[Yaoundé - Cameroun] - 19-10-2007 (George Echu) </p>
<p class="resumein">Cameroon is a Central African country where 247 indigenous languages coexist side by side with two official languages (English and French), and a lingua franca (Cameroon Pidgin English). Linguistic borrowing, interference, code switching, loan translation, and other manifestations of language contact characterize this particularly dense multilingual sit uation. In fact, the languages mutually exert some influence on one another. Such influence may be from the official languages to the indigenous
languages.Assia,bend skin,came-no-go,dokta,gnama gnama,hope eye,kontchaf,mbanga soup,mouf,ngengerou, nkane,poto -poto,tchotchoro,tchop -broke-pot,water fufu,tchouquer.</p>
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<p align="left">Introduction</p></font></b></font><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
<p align="left">Cameroon is a Central African country where 247 indigenous languages coexist side by side with two official languages (English and French), and a lingua franca (Cameroon Pidgin English). Linguistic borrowing, interference, code switching, loan translation, and other manifestations of language contact characterize this particularly dense multilingual sit uation. In fact, the languages mutually exert some influence on one another. Such influence may be from the official languages to the indigenous languages (Bitja'a Kody, 1998), from the indigenous languages to the official languages (Echu, 1999; Kouega, 1998; Zang Zang, 1998), from the indigenous languages to Cameroon Pidgin English (Menang, 1979), from the official languages to Cameroon Pidgin English (Schneider, 1966; Mbassi Manga, 1973), from Cameroon Pidgin English to the official languages (Kouega, 1998), from Cameroon Pidgin English to indigenous languages or from one official language to the other (Mbangwana, 1999; Kouega, 1999).
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<p align="left">This paper focuses on the influence of Cameroon Pidgin English (CPE) on the linguistic and cultural development of the Fre nch language. Various studies carried out on the French language in Cameroon reveal the presence of CPE loans not only in spoken French but also in local Cameroonian newspapers, and literary works. The rapid expansion of CPE as a lingua franca in Cameroon undoubtedly has an important role to play in this process, given the gradual appropriation of this language by Francophone Cameroonians.
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<p align="left">The study is divided into four main parts. The first part surveys the language situation in Cameroon, shedding light on the multilingual nature of the country as well as on the place of French and CPE. The second part is a presentation of the methodology and corpus used for the work, while the third part focuses on the lexical influence of CPE loans on French. Finally, the fourth part probes into the semantic and cultural value of CPE loans.
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<p align="left">1. Overview of Language Situation</p></font></b><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
<p align="left"><strong>1.1. Multilingualism in Cameroon</strong></p></font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
<p align="left">Cameroon is a multilingual country comprising 247 indigenous languages, two official languages and Cameroon Pidgin English (see Breton and Fohtung, 1991; Boum Ndongo-Semengue and Sadembouo, 1999). Although
</p></font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Ethnologue </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">(2002) puts the number of indigenous languages for Cameroon at 279, these figures are challenged by scholars such as Wolf (2001) for not being an accurate reflection of the current language situation, more so since dialects of the same language are sometimes considered as different languages. Of the four major language families of Africa, three are represented in Cameroon. They are the Afro-Asiatic, the Nilo-Saharan and the Niger-Congo.
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<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Languages belonging to the Afro-Asiatic and Nilo -Saharan families are </font><font face="Arial Narrow" color="#2f2f2f"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">spoken in the north of the country. Niger-Congo languages, which are the most highly represented in Cameroon, are spoken in the southern region. The languages of wider communication are Fulfulde, Ewondo, Basaa, Duala, Hausa, Wandala, Kanuri, Arabe Choa, CPE (Breton and Fohtung, 1991: 20) and French. In all, three lingua franca zones can be distinguished in Cameroon: the Fulfulde lingua franca zone , the Pidgin English lingua franca zone and the French lingua franca zone (Wolf, 2001:155). Such a division should not be taken to be rigid, given the overlap observable in terms of language use.
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<p align="left"><font face="Arial Narrow" color="#2f2f2f"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">The Fulfulde lingua francazone covers the Adamawa, the North and the Far North provinces of Cameroon where it served as the language of Islam as far back as the 17
</font><font face="Times New Roman" size="1">th </font><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">century. CPE is widely used not only in the North-West and South-West provinces (Anglophone provinces), but also in the Littoral and West provinces. As for French, its role as a language of wider communication is traced to the post-independence period, following the gradual but massive acquisition of this language by Cameroonians of all walks of life. Thus apart from the three northern provinces (where Fulfulde thrives as a lingua franca) and the two Anglophone provinces (where Pidgin English is the
</font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">de facto </font></i></font><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">lingua franca), French plays this role in the rest of the other five Francophone provinces </font><font face="Times New Roman" size="1">
2</font><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">. </font></p>
<p align="left"><font face="Arial Narrow" color="#2f2f2f"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"></font></font> </p>
<p align="left"><font face="Arial Narrow" color="#2f2f2f"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">The two official languages, English and French, came into the Cameroon linguistic scene in 1916 when Britain and France divided Cameroon into two unequal parts after defeating Germany in Cameroon during the First World War. The new colonial masters then sought to impose their languages in the newly acquired territory, both in the areas of education and administration. This led to the solid implantation of the two languages between 1916 and 1960, a situation that was reinforced after Cameroon became independent. At Reunification in 1961, English and French became the two official languages of Cameroon as the country opted for the policy of official language bilingualism.
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<p align="left">1.2. The French Language in Cameroon</p></font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
<p align="left">Although an official language since 1960 when the country became independent, the presence of French in Cameroon can be traced as far back as 1916 when France became one of the administering authorities of the country. The French who obtained four-fifths of the country, administered it as an independent territory, while the British annexed their share to neighboring Nigeria. In the new French territory referred to as 'French Cameroon' French was not only taught in schools but was also used for administration throughout the colonial period. Language policy during the French colonial period favored the development of the French language in every respect.
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<p align="left">Thus while French was promoted at school, indigenous languages were banned from the school system (see Stumpf, 1979; Bitja'a Kody, 1999). At independence, French was logically adopted as the official language of the country, not only because the linguistic diversity of the country did not permit the emergence of an indigenous language likely to play the role of official language but also for reasons of national unity. French thus became the language of education, administration, politics, culture, the media, etc, and consequently the language of communication for an important component of the population. Couvert (1983: 31) sums up the historical evolution of the French language in Cameroon in the following manner: a) 1919-1944 – French becomes progressively the language of administration and of communication between the French colonialist and Cameroonians in such
<font face="Times New Roman" size="3">situations as the administration, the army and master/servant relationships, b) 1944- 1961 – French is both the official and vehicular language in urban centers, c) 1961- 1972 – French is one of the two official languages in Cameroon (the other one being English) but it is mostly used in East Cameroon, d) 1972-1982 – reinforcement of the position of the French language within the framework of the policy of official language bilingualism.
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<p align="left">Renaud (1976: 23) distinguishes four main varieties of French spoken in Cameroon: </p></font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">dialectes régionaux et de "quartier" </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
(regional dialects), </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">français commun </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">(ordinary French)</font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">, <strong>argots </strong>
</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"><strong>(slang) </strong></font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"><strong>and français langue étrangère</strong> </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">(French as a foreign language). According to him, regional dialects are spoken by illiterates and school dropouts, while ordinary French is spoken by those who have limited educational background – usually incomplete secondary education.
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<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"> In view of the present day evolution of the language, these varieties are rather difficult to distinguish. In reality, one may talk of Standard Cameroonian French (SCF) used in formal situations such as the school context, newspapers, radio, television, administrative offices, etc, and Cameroon Popular French (CPF) which is used mostly for informal everyday communication by illiterates and semi-illiterates alike. Both varieties of French borrow lexical items not only from CPE but also from Cameroon English and the indigenous languages. The French language in Cameroon fulfils at least six different functions: official language, second language, mother tongue, vehicular language, school language and foreign language (Ongue ne Essono, 1999: 287).
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<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"></font> </p>
<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Although Onguene Essono attributes such a wide spectrum of functions to French, these functions can basically be subsumed into three: official language, language of wider communication and mother tongue. As an official language, the French language dominates the educational system and administration. Demographically 80% of Cameroon is French-speaking. As the main language of instruction, an overwhelming majority of schools in Cameroon use French as the medium of instruction. French domination is equally felt at the level of administration where both oral and written communication is almost exclusively carried out in French, the language of the majority. Thus, given its geographical spread, French is used in all spheres of life, be they formal or informal. Findings obtained from a linguistic survey carried out between 1977 and 1978 indicate that 87% of children interviewed in the Francophone provinces speak French (cf. Koenig et al., 1983: 94-95).
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<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">If such a high percentage was recorded more than 20 years ago, there is no doubt that the situation has witnessed some positive evolution, given the growing literacy rate in Cameroon in particular and the Sub- Saharan African region in general. As an official language of the country, French is acquired primarily within the formal school environment, a fact supported by the literacy rate of the country that stands at 65% and the school attendance rate that stands at 70% (cf. Chumbow & Simo Bobda, 2000: 46). These figures indicate that a good number of Cameroonians can read and write French and/or English. Several Francophone Cameroonians who live in urban centers can also speak French acquired mainly in informal situations. Thus, in the absence of a lingua franca that ensures nationwide communication, the French language functions as a language of wider communication in towns and cities of the Francophone part of the country
</font><font face="Times New Roman" size="1">3</font><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">. As the dominant official language and one of <font face="Times New Roman" size="3">the most widely spoken languages in the country, the French language not only exerts varying degrees of influence on the other languages but is also open to influence from these languages, among them CPE.
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<p align="left"><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"><strong>1.3. Evolution of CPE</strong></font></i></p></font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
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<p align="left">What scholars today generally refer to as CPE has been variously termed "Cameroon Creole" (Schneider, 1960), "Wes-Kos" (Schneider, 1963), "West African Pidgin English" (Schneider, 1967), "Cameroon Pidgin (CamP)" (Todd, 1982), and "Kamtok" (Ngome, 1986). Other non-scholarly appellations such as "bush English" , "bad English" and "broken English" have equally been used to describe this language. The latter appellations have been based on the widespread belief that Pidgin English, be it of the Cameroonian variety or other existing varieties such as Nigerian Pidgin English and Ghanaian Pidgin English, is a simplified form of English used mostly by non-educated people in some of the former British colonies of West Africa.
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<p align="left">The name "Cameroon Pidgin English" (Féral, 1978; Menang, 1979) has so far gained a lot of popularity at the level of scholarship and consequently most linguists carrying out research on Cameroon today have adopted it. The adoption of this terminology makes it relatively easier to define this language as the Pidgin English used in Cameroon, as opposed to varieties used in other countries. The birth of CPE is often traced as far back as the 18
</p></font><font face="Times New Roman" size="1">th </font><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">century when English traders and missionaries set foot on the coast of West Africa. Pidgin English developed to guarantee effective communication in the area of trade and evangelization. After the abolition of slave trade at the beginning of the 19
</font><font face="Times New Roman" size="1">th </font><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">century, this language continued to expand all over the coastal region. It was used by some of the newly freed slaves who settled in Fernando Po, Liberia and Sierra Leone, and later moved to the Cameroonian coastal town of Victoria where they worked for the Cameroon Development Corporation (an agro-industrial complex created by the Germans in July 1884).
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<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"> The numerous road and railway construction projects where the colonialists practiced forced labor also ser ved as a fertile ground for the growth and development of CPE. Given that these work sites brought together people from diversified ethnic and linguistic backgrounds, Pidgin English was the only language that could facilitate communication. Consequently, throughout the German colonial period in Cameroon (1884-1916), Pidgin English continued to be widely used.
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<p align="left">Following the Franco-British occupation of Cameroon as of 1916, CPE witnessed a new period of its history. In British Cameroon, where it was mainly spoken, English and the indigenous languages enriched its vocabulary. Then with the birth of the Federal Republic of Cameroon on October 1, 1961, CPE further experienced French influence, as well as influence from the local languages of French-speaking Cameroon.
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<p align="left">Thus in the mid sixties, 85% of CPE terms came from English, 13% from indigenous languages and 2% from other languages, including French and Portuguese (Schneider, 1966: 5). By the early seventies, this situation had changed significantly: 80% of CPE lexicon was English-based, 14% came from indigenous languages, 5% from French and 1% from other languages (Mbassi Manga, 1973). Such a drastic change can be attributed to the political evolution of the country, since Cameroon moved from a federation to a unitary state in which both Anglophones and Francophones henceforth had freedom of movement. Presently, CPE is no longer perceived exclusively as a lingua franca of the Anglophone
<font face="Times New Roman" size="3">population, but as a language with a possible national dimension giv en that its influence is felt in several major towns of the eight Francophone provinces where it is also spoken (Féral, 1980: 46). In urban as well as rural areas, CPE is used in churches, in market places, in motor parks, in railway stations, in the street, as well as in other informal situations.
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<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"> In fact, this 'no man's language' continues to be very present in the daily socioeconomic lives of the people, serving as a bridge between Cameroonians of various walks of life. Although
</font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Ethnologue </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">(2002) estima tes its speakers at 2 million people, the number is quite conservative when one takes into consideration the numerous potential Francophone speakers and immigrants of Nigerian and Ghaniain origin scattered all over the national territory. Like French, CPE is one of the most widely used languages of wider communication in Cameroon. During the colonial period, it enabled European colonizers to interact with the indigenous population and facilitated communication among people from various ethnic groups in social, economic, and religious contexts.
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<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Today, it remains the language of daily interaction in informal situations and one of the preferred languages of popular music. It is used in humorous situations and for making jokes. It is equally used to express certain taboos, for instance when discussing love and sex in public. As far as the varieties of CPE are concerned, Féral (1980: 5) is of the opinion that there are two main varieties: one spoken by Anglophones and the other spoken by Francophones.
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<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Todd (1982) is, however, not of the same opinion. She distinguishes five varieties of CPE: Bamenda CamP, Bororo CamP, Coastal CamP, Francophone CamP and Liturgical CamP. Our opinion is that there are four distinct varieties of CPE: the Grassland variety spoken in the North-West province, the Bororo variety spoken by the Bororo, the Coastal variety spoken in the South-West province and the Francophone variety spoken by Francophones. What Todd considers as the Liturgical variety is, in our opinion, nothing other than a register peculiar to the religious context.
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<p align="left"><b><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"> 2. Methodology and Presentation of Corpus </font></b><b><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"> </font></b></p>
<p align="left"><b><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"></font></b><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">In carrying out this study, we collected a list of sixty (60) recurrent lexical items from CPEobserved in French usage in Cameroon. In other words, the corpus retained is made up of CPE words that one hears often in CPF, reads in Cameroon newspapers in French such as
</font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Le Messager Popoli</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">, </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">L'Expression de Mamy Wata </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
and </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Patrimoine </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">and comes across in Cameroon popular music or in Cameroon literature in French. </font><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
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<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"></font> </p>
<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Their va rious contexts of usage (whether oral or written) were analyzed. Then, we investigated the extent of their usage in French by consulting French dictionaries, glossaries and encyclopedia so as to verify the degree to which the French language has absorbed the lexical items in question. Furthermore, we examined the semantic and cultural influence of the CPE loans studied on the target language. In constituting our corpus, some existing lexical inventories were quite instrumental to the study.
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<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"></font> </p>
<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">This is the case of the </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Inventaire des particularités lexicales du français du Cameroun </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
(Inventory of Lexical Peculiarities of Cameroon French), otherwise known as IFA, published by Gervais Mendo Ze, Jean Tabi Manga and Rachel Efoua-Zengue in 1979, which is the first doc umented inventory of lexical peculiarities of the French language in Cameroon (cf. Mendo Ze et al., 1979). This inventory contains 22 CPE loans.
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<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"></font> </p>
<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Later inventories such as the IFA inventory of 1983 contain 27 CPE loans, while the IFA inventory of 1988 contains 28. Our participation, <font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
since 1998, in the IFACAM II (Inventaire des Particularités Lexicales du français en Afrique - Cameroun) project, which focuses on the preparation of an inventory of lexical peculiarities of the French language in Cameroon, has been quite instrumental in the constitution of the present corpus. In carrying out this exercise, we did however encounter some difficulties, such as determining in certain cases which loans are of CPE origin and which are of indigenous language origin. In fact, given that some indigenous language terms get into the French language via CPE (
e.g. </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">njoh </font></i></font><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">, </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">mbout</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">, </font>
<i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">nyanga</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">), it was not easy deciding where to classify them. </font></p>
<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"></font></font> </p>
<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">However, considering the fact that this category of words came to be known and widely used in Cameroon through CPE, it was therefore agreed that they could effectively be considered as CPE loans. In other cases, certain lexical items are used across several indigenous languages, as well as in CPE, such that issues relating to their origins become not only uncertain but also problematic. Once more, our guiding principle here for considering them as CPE loans is that they came to be widely known to the public and borrowed by French through CPE. In a few cases, we were unable to trace the origin of certain lexical items. However, given that research in this area is still in its embryonic stage, issues relating to the origin of such loans will certainly be clarified with time.
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<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"></font></font> </p>
<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">The lexical items presented below constitute the corpus for this study. </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Africa gin
</font></i></font><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">: (other indigenous names ar<strong>e </strong></font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"><strong>arki</strong></font></i><strong><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
, </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">fofo </font></i></strong><strong><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">and </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">odontol</font></i></strong><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
) from the English compound noun 'African gin'. Locally brewed alcoholic drink made from fermented corn, cassava or palm wine. This term was widely used during the French colonial period in Camer oon, especially after the Second World War. Today, it is more and more replaced by loans from Cameroonian languages such as
</font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">fofo </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">and </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">odontol</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">. Source of loan: novel by Oyono (1956a: 20).
</font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">arata </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">: (other appellations are </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">aratha, arata die </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
or </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">arata tchop die </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">) from the English word 'rat'. Name given to poison used to kill rats that infest households. </font></p>
<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"></font></font> </p>
<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">This product, which probably comes from neighboring Nigeria, was first seen in the local markets in the early 1990s. Thus the loan was first noticed in the French
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<p align="left">language during this period. Source of loan: Cameroonian newspaper in French <i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Le Messager Popoli</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">, N° 555 of 22 Feb. 2001, p. 4.
</font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">assia </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">: interjection used to express compassion; courage. This loan is generally used in CPF and its usage can be traced as far back as the late 1970s. Source of loan: Cameroonian newspaper in French Le
</font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Messager Popoli</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">, N° 569 of 12 Apr. 2001, p. 3. </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">bad luck </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
: (also called </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">balok </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">or </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">barlok</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
) bad luck or ill luck. This loan is commonly used as an interjection expressing astonishment or surprise in daily communication, and its usage in CPF can be traced back to the 1970s. </font></p>
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<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Source of loan: novel by Beyala (1987: 15). </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"><strong>bayam sellam</strong></font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
: (also written </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">bayam-sellam</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">) from the English verbs 'to buy' and 'to sell'. Noun used to refer to a market woman who buys foodstuff in rural areas and retails it in the cities. This loan entered CPF in the 1980s when the role of female foodstuff retailers became increasingly important in the economy. In the 1990s, its usage spread from CPF to SCF as leading politicians and statesmen used it in their discourse in the absence of a more appropriate Standard French equivalent. Source of loan: novel by Beyala (1998: 21) and Cameroonian newspaper in French
</font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">L'Expression de Mamy Wata </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">, N° 167 of 4 Jan. 2001, p. 11) </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">benam</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
: (synonym is </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">bend skin </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">) from the English verb '<strong>to bend'.</strong> </font></p>
<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"></font> </p>
<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Motorcycle used as a means of passenger transport in urban areas. This lexical item entered CPF <font face="Times New Roman" size="3">current usage in the early 1990s when the economic crisis intensified in Cameroon following a major political crisis in the country in 1992. The motorcycle became a major means of transport in urban areas like Douala when traditional means of transport such as the yellow cab were forced by the radical opposition political parties to go on strike. Source of loan: generally used in daily oral communication.
</font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">bend skin </font></i></font><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">: from the English words 'bend' and 'skin'. Signifies: a) a type of music and dance from the Bamileke region; b) motorcycle used as a means of passenger transport in urba n areas. This lexical item first entered CPF through the domain of music and dance in the early 1990s, where it signified a new type of music from the Bamileke region in the West province that was danced by bending one's chest forward while allowing the buttocks to protrude behind.
</font></p>
<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"></font></font> </p>
<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">This posture of the dancer was soon likened to that of the passenger who sat on a motorcycle with his/her chest forward and buttocks backwards, whence the name
</font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">bend skin </font></i></font><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">given to motorcycles used as a means of passenger transport in urban areas. Source: oral usage where it refers to a particular type of music or dance, or a motorcycle used for commercial purposes.
</font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">ben -skinneur</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">: from the English words 'bend' and 'skin'. This name is given to the driver of a motorcycle used as a means of passenger transport in urban areas.
</font></p>
<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"></font></font> </p>
<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">The term is used especially in CPF by young urban dwellers, and can be traced back to the late 1990s. Source of loan: Cameroonian newspaper in French
</font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">L'Expression de Mamy Wata </font></i></font><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">, N°175 of 1 March 2001, p. 3. </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"><strong>bitter cola
</strong></font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"><strong>:</strong> (also called </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">bita cola </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">or </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
mbita cola </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">) from the English words 'bitter' and 'kola nut'. It is a type of kola nut that has a sour taste, and believed to serve as a form of viagra. The scientific name is
</font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">gasima kola </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">. Its presence in CPF can be traced back to the 1970s. Source of loan: oral discourse, especially in the socioeconomic domain.
</font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">born house</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">: from the English words 'born' and 'house' (house in which a child has been born). Refers to a ceremony organized following the birth of a child.
</font></p>
<p align="left"> </p>
<p align="left">During this ceremony, which usually takes place in the home of the parents of the newborn baby, friends and well-wishers are invited. The word <i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">born house </font></i>
<font face="Times New Roman" size="3">found its way into CPF in the 1990s with the spread of this social practice in Francophone urban centers. It is used frequently in oral communication among people of different ethnic backgrounds.
</font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">came-no-go</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">: from the English words 'come', 'not' and 'go' (that which comes and refuses to go away). It refers to a persistent kind of skin infection caused by an animal parasite. This loan entered CPF in the early 1990s when the parasite was first observed in Cameroon.
</font></p>
<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"></font> </p>
<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Source of loan: Cameroonian newspaper in French </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Le Messager Popoli</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">, N° 557 of 1 March 2001, p. 6.
</font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">djambo</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">: (also </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">ndjambo </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">) game of gambling in which playing cards are used. This loan has existed in CPF since the 1960s when it was used in Douala and some other Francophone urban centers especially among gamblers. It is frequently used in oral communication. Source of loan: oral context in
</font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Equipe IFA</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">, 1983, p. 156. </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"><strong>dokta</strong> </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
: (also </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">dokita</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">) from the English word 'doctor'. It refers to a medical doctor or by extension any other member of the medical corp. Its introduction into CPF dates from the 1960s. Source of loan: novel by Mongo Beti (1974: 94) and some oral sources observed in everyday interaction.
<i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">fever grass</font></i></font><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">: from the English words 'fever' and 'grass'. Refers to a type of herb used as a tisane for curing fever and malaria.
</font></p>
<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"></font></font> </p>
<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">The presence of this term in CPF dates from the 1990s, and the term is used in oral communication. </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
fufu</font></i></font><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">: (also </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">foufou </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">and </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
fou-fou </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">) dough made from ground cassava, and used as staple food in many parts of Cameroon. The word is believed to be a West African Pidgin English loan from Twi 'fufuu' (
</font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">The Concise Oxfo rd Dictionary</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">, 1999, p. 571).</font></p>
<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"></font> </p>
<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"> The word<strong> </strong></font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"><strong>fufu </strong></font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"><strong>exists</strong>
in CPF since the 1970s. It is used in everyday discourse as a synonym of the French <strong>word </strong></font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"><strong>couscous</strong></font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
. Source of loan: oral source in </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Equipe IFA</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">, 1983, p. 198. </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">fufu corn</font></i>
<font face="Times New Roman" size="3">: from the English word 'corn fufu'. It refers to a type of fufu made from corn. </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Fufu corn </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
is one of the staple dishes of Cameroonians from the North- West province. Although it has existed in CPE from time immemorial, its presence in CPF dates from the 1990s. Source of loan: CPF oral usage . </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
gnama gnama</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">: (also written </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">nyama nyama</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">) small; person or thing of little value or importance.
</font></p>
<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"></font> </p>
<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"> This word used both as a noun and as an adjective made its way into CPF in the early 1980s through oral usage. Source of lexical item: Cameroonian newspaper in French
</font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">L'Expression de Mamy Wata </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">, N° 175 of 1 March 2001, p. 5. </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"><strong>hope eye</strong>
</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"><strong>:</strong> from the English 'open eye' (the act of opening one's eyes), which means 'the act of intimidating' or 'making people fear'. The word </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
hope eye</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">, very common in the oral usage of young urban speakers of CPF, dates from the 1970s. Source of loan: oral context in </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
Equipe IFA</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">, 1983, p. 233. </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">juju</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">: (other appellations are </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
<strong>juju kalaba </strong></font></i><strong><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">, </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">ndjounjou</font></i></strong><strong><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">, </font><i>
<font face="Times New Roman" size="3">ndjoudjou </font></i></strong><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"><strong>or </strong></font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"><strong>ndjounjou kalaba</strong> </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
) mask made from calabash (whence the name </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">kalaba</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">) and worn es pecially by children for entertainment performances; masquerade; ugly person. The use of this term is common among young people. Its date of entry into CPF is uncertain. Source of loan: oral context in
</font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Equipe IFA</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">, 1983, p. 329. </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">katika</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
: from the English word 'caretaker'.</font></p>
<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"></font> </p>
<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"> The word refers to a security guard in charge of a public place like cinema hall, recreation ground, casino, etc. It entered current CPF usage in the late 1980s among young urban dwellers, as expressed essentially in oral discourse.
</font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"><strong>kelen kelen</strong></font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"><strong>:</strong> local variety of spinach used for preparing a type of sticky soup. The scientific name of this vegetable is
<strong> </strong></font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"><strong>corchorus olitorius</strong></font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"><strong>.</strong> Basically used in the CPF spoken around Douala in market places, its usage dates from the 1970s.
</font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">kolo </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">: one thousand CFA francs. The word </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">kolo </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
entered CPF spoken in Douala through bandits and highway robbers in the late 1960s. Today, it is not only used in the CPF of young city dwellers but also in Camfranglais, a local slang. Source of loan: oral context in </font>
<i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Equipe IFA</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">, 1983, p. <strong>263. </strong></font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"><strong>kontchaf</strong></font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
: from the English words 'corn' and 'chaff'. </font></p>
<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"></font> </p>
<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">It refers to a local dish prepared by mixing corn and beans cooked in palm oil. Although the use of this term is recurrent in urban contexts (especially in prison circles where the dish is consumed almost on a daily basis), its date of entry into Cameroon French is uncertain.
</font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">kpa coco</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">: from Bakweri 'kpa' and English 'cocoyam'. Name used for a local dish prepared from cocoyam or cassava paste wrapped in cocoyam or plantain leaves and cooked with palm oil. It is a staple dish among the Bakweri of the South-West province, but also commonly found among other ethnic groups of the coastal region such as the Banyangs, the Basaas and the Bakokos.
</font></p>
<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"> Among the Bakweris, it is generally eaten together with </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"><strong>mbanga soup</strong></font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
. The first Cameroonian speakers of French who got into contact with this <font face="Times New Roman" size="3">term are civil servants and military personnel who served around Buea in the 1960s. Today, given that </font>
<i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"><strong>kpa coco</strong> </font></i></font><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">is a national Cameroonian dish, the use of the term is gaining currency not only in CPF but also in SCF.
</font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"><strong>makala</strong> </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">: doughnuts made from corn, beans or cassava. A highly appreciated dish for breakfast, it is usually eaten together with beans or with maize porridge known
<strong>as </strong></font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"><strong>pap</strong></font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">. Its presence in CPF dates from the 1950s around the Douala region. </font></p>
<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"></font> </p>
<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Source of loan: oral context in </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Equipe IFA</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">, 1983, p. 289<strong>. </strong>
</font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"><strong>mallam</strong></font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">: comes from the Hausa word </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">mãlam(i) </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
and refers to a scribe who possesses in-depth knowledge of Islam, or a highly respected member of the Muslim community. In the Cameroonian context, the word is commonly used to refer to a traditional medicine man from the North of Cameroon. It is this extended meaning of the word that is used in CPE since the 1960s. Source of lexical item: novel by Mongo Beti (2000: 151).
</font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"><strong>mami-wata</strong></font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">: (other common spellings are </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">mamiwata</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
, </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">mamie water </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">and </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">mamy wata </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
) from the English words 'mammy' and 'water' (mother of the water). Refers to mermaid; a very beautiful woman. The word has been used in oral contexts in CPF since the early 1960s. Source of loan: Dooh-Bunya (1977: 270).
</font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"><strong>mandjanga</strong></font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"><strong>:</strong> variety of small smoked prawns used in cooking in order to give flavor to local dishes. Its use in CPF dates from the 1970s. Source of loan: oral context in
</font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Equipe IFA</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">, 1983, p. 294. </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"><strong>manjunga</strong></font></i><strong><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
: (also </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">majunga</font></i></strong><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"><strong>)</strong> a type of relatively inexpensive and popular red wine (originally of French origin) bottled in Cameroon.
</font></p>
<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"></font> </p>
<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">This word has been in existence in CPF since the colonial period when French traders introduced red wine in Cameroon. Source of loan: oral context in </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
Equipe IFA</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">, 1983, p. 289. </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"><strong>massa</strong></font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">: from the English word 'master', meaning 'sir' or 'master' and used as a title to show respect for the person referred to. Although this loan is increasingly used nowadays in satirical newspapers like
</font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">L'Expression de Mamy Wata </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">, its presence in CPF dates from the 1960s. Source of loan: novel by Mongo Beti (1974: 206), Mongo Beti (1974: 227) and the Cameroonian newspaper in French
</font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">L'Expression de Mamy Wata</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">, N° 168 of 11 Jan. 2001, p.4. </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"><strong>matango</strong>
</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">: refers to palm wine or raphia wine. The use of this loan in CPF can be traced back to the 1970s. Source of loan: oral daily usage. </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
<strong>mbanga soup </strong></font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"><strong>:</strong> from the CPE word 'mbanga' (palm nuts) and the English word 'soup'. Refers to a type of soup prepared principally by using palm nut juice. Like
</font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"><strong>kpa coco</strong></font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">, the use of </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">mbanga soup </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
can be traced from the early 1960s. </font></p>
<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"></font> </p>
<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">It is used mainly in oral contexts. </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"><strong>mbout</strong></font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">: abbreviated from CPE
</font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"><strong>mboutoukou,</strong> </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">which means 'a good for nothing person' or 'a weakling'. Mainly used by young people, this loan exists in CPF since the 1970s. Source of loan: oral context in
</font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Equipe IFA</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">, 1983, p. 306. </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">mini-minor</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
: refers to a young woman who has not yet attained puberty; very young prostitute. Present in CPF since the early 1960s, this loan is mainly used in oral contexts. Source of loan: oral context in </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
Equipe IFA</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">, 1983, p. 313. </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"><strong>motorboy</strong></font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">: (also <strong>written
</strong></font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"><strong>moto boy </strong></font></i><strong><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">or </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">motor-boy</font></i></strong><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
) from the English words 'motor' and 'boy' (a boy who works for motor cars or lorries). Refers to a lorry driver's assistant. This word exists in CPF since the 1960s. Source: oral context recorded from popular radio program 'Avis de recherche' and from
</font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Equipe IFA</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">, 1983, p. 319. </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">mouf</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
: get out; go away. </font></p>
<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"></font> </p>
<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">This interjection is used in jovial contexts, especially among young people. A lexical item very popular among students, its presence in Cameroon French can be traced as far back as the late 1970s. Source of loan:
<font face="Times New Roman" size="3">novel by Mongo Beti (1999: 101) and the Cameroonian newspaper in French </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">L'Expression de Mamy Wata</font></i></font><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
, N° 167 of 4 Jan. 2001, p.11. </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">moukala </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">: albino. Used in CPF since the 1960s, its usage is predominant in oral contexts. </font>
<i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">moumou</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">: deaf and dumb person. Present in CPF since the 1960s, the term is used mainly in oral contexts. </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
ndjama ndjama </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">: local variety of huckleberry which is cooked and eaten with corn fufu.</font></p>
<p align="left"> </p>
<p align="left"> Its scientific name is <i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">solanium nigrium. </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">The term is used in everyday oral contexts, and its usage in Cameroon French can be traced back to the early 1960s following the contact between Francophones and Anglophones.
</font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">ndjinja</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">: (also written </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">djindja</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
) from the English word 'ginger', meaning 'ginger' or 'difficult'. Predominantly used in oral contexts among city dwellers, its presence in CPF can be traced to the early 1970s. Source of loan: Cameroonian newspaper in French
</font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">L'Expression de Mamy Wata </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">, N° 175 of March 2001, p. 5. </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">ngengerou </font></i>
<font face="Times New Roman" size="3">: (also </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">nguengerou </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">) derogatory name for albino. This loan has been frequently used in CPF (oral contexts) since the 1960s. Source of loan:
</font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Equipe IFA</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">, 1983, p. 333. </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">ngomna</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
: from the English word 'governor', meaning 'administrator' or 'government'. The word </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">ngomna </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">was first observed in CPF in the early 1980s.
</font></p>
<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"></font> </p>
<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Source of loan: short story by Abega (1982: 13). </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">ngrafi</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">: from the English word 'grassfield'. It is generally used to refer to someone who comes from the North-West or West province. Although its presence in CPE is relatively old (since the colonial period), its usage as a French loan dates from the late 1980s.
</font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">njangsang </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">: tropical fruit that is used as a condiment. The scientific name is </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
ricinodendron heudrolotii</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">. The presence of this term in Cameroon French dates from the 1960s. It is frequently used by market women in their commercial transactions and also in the food industry in the absence of an appropriate French equivalent.
</font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">njangui</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">: from Basaa or Duala </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">njangui</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
, referring to a cooperative system of financial contribution wherein members benefit in turns. </font></p>
<p align="left"> </p>
<p align="left">The word <i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">njangui </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">is used as a synonym of the French word </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">tontine</font>
</i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">, but less frequently used tha n the latter by Cameroonian speakers of French. Its presence in CPF dates from the 1990s. So urce of lexical item: oral context in </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
Equipe IFA</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">, 1983, p. 329. </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">njoh</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">: (also </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
ndjo</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">) from Basaa or Duala </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">njoh </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">, meaning 'free of charge'. Speakers of CPF have used the word
</font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">njoh </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">since the 1960s. Source of loan: oral context in</font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Equipe IFA</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
, 1983, p. 329.</font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">nkane</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">: (also </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">nkané</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
) prostitute; brothel. Its presence in CPF dates from the 1960s in the metropolitan areas of French-speaking Cameroon. Source of loan: oral context in </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Equipe IFA</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
, 1983, p. 335. </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">nyanga</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">: from Ewondo or Basaa </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">nyanga</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
, meaning 'elegant'. Speakers of CPF have used the word </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">nyanga </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">since the 1960s. </font></p>
<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"></font> </p>
<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">It is predominantly used in oral contexts. Source of loan: </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Equipe IFA</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
, 1983, p. 340. </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">nyangalement</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">: from Ewondo or Basaa </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">nyanga </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
, meaning 'in an elegant or seductive manner'. To this root has been added the French suffix '</font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">-</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">ment' (equivalent to the English '-ly') used in the derivation of adverbs from adjectives. The word
</font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">nyangalement </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">is a very recent creation in CPF. At moment, it is usedessentially by a cross-section of young urban speakers of CPF, and
<font face="Times New Roman" size="3">French </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Le Messager Popoli</font></i></font><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">, N° 554 of 20 Feb. 2001, p.8. </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
paf</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">: (also </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">pap </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">) maize porridge prepared locally and consumed together with doughnuts. This loan has been used both in CPF and SCF since the 1970s. Source of loan: oral context from
</font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Equipe IFA</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">, 1983, p. 349. </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">pasto </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
: from English 'pastor'. It is an affective way of referring to a pastor. </font></p>
<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"></font> </p>
<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">The use of this loan in CPF dates from the 1960s. Source of loan: Cameroonian newspaper in French </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Le Messager Popoli</font>
</i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">, N° 566 of 3 April 2001, p. 2. </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">poto -poto </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">: mud; valueless. The presence of this word in Cameroon French dates from the 1940s during the French colonial period. Source of loan: novel by Oyono (1956b: 107), Oyono (1956b: 113) and the Cameroonian newspaper in French
</font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Patrimoine</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">, N° 8 of October 2000, p. 3. </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">sabitout</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
: someone who knows everything; pretentious person who claims to know everything. The presence of </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">sabitout </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">in CPF is relatively recent, dating from the late 1990s. Source of loan: Cameroonian popular music.
</font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">sita </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">: (also written </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">sista</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">) from the English word 'sister'. Affective appellation for a woman in general, irrespective of the relationship that exists between the speaker and the person referred to. This loan has been used in CPF since the 1960s.
</font></p>
<p align="left"> </p>
<p align="left">Source of loan: novels by Mpoudi-Ngolle (1990: 33) and Mongo Beti (2000: 85). <i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">small no be sick </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">: (also written </font>
<i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">simol no bi sik </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">) from the English words 'small', 'not', 'be' and 'sick' (small is not sick). It is used to refer to a rub of Asian origin generally used to cure body pains, and locally believed to cure several ailments including influenza. This loan entered CPF in the early 1990s through hawkers in the major towns and cities of Cameroon. It is basically used in oral communication during commercial exchanges.
</font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">tchotchoro </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">: small; someone of no importance. Speakers of CPF have used this loan since the 1980s. Source of loan: oral contexts.
</font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">tchop -broke-pot</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">: (also written </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">tchop brook pot</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
) from the English words 'chop', 'broke' and 'pot'. It refers to a glutton or an extravagant person. This loan entered CPF in the late 1980s. Source of loan: Cameroonian newspaper in Frenc h </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
Le Messager Popoli</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">, N° 5 of 11 June 1993, p. 10. </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">tchouquer</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">: from the CPE word
</font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">tchouk</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">, meaning 'to pierce'. In CPF, the verb </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">tchouquer </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
means 'to have sexual relationship with a woman'. </font></p>
<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"></font> </p>
<p align="left"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">This loan entered CPF in the 1960s through a local French slang known as 'le français makro' used by some Douala city dwellers. Source of loan: musical tune "Marche arrière" by Petit Pays, 1996.
</font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">washman</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">: from the English words 'wash' and 'man'. This compound word refers to a house worker in charge of laundry. The presence of this loan in Cameroon French can be traced as far back as the 1940s during the French colonial period. It was used not only by the indigenes but also by the French, and believed to have come from Ghana and Nigeria. Today, it is no longer in current French usage. Source of loan: novels by Oyono (1956b: 111).
</font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">water fufu </font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">: (also written </font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">watafufu</font></i><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
) from the English words 'water' and 'fufu'. Refers to a type of fufu made from cassava paste fermented in water. The presence of this loan in CPF dates from the 1970s. Source of loan: current CPF everyday usage in the market place and restaurants. For purposes of illustration, some of the utterances collected or recorded in the course of the research appear at the end of the work as an annex.
</font></p>
<p><font face="Arial Narrow" color="#2f2f2f"></font> </p><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">
<p align="left"><strong>George Echu</strong></p>
<p align="left"><strong>University of Yaounde I</strong></p>
<p align="left"><strong></strong> </p><font face="Times New Roman" size="1">
<p align="left">This paper was presented at </p></font><i><font face="Times New Roman" size="1">Cultures in Motion: the Africa Connection </font></i></font><font face="Times New Roman" size="1">, an international conference
<p align="left">which took place at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville from February 5-9, 2003.</p></font><br clear="all"><br>-- <br>**************************************<br>N.b.: Listing on the lgpolicy-list is merely intended as a service to its members
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