<div dir="ltr"><div>Language Development and Age<br><br>Announced at <a href="http://linguistlist.org/issues/18/18-3482.html">http://linguistlist.org/issues/18/18-3482.html</a> <br>AUTHOR: Herschensohn, Julia <br>TITLE: Language Development and Age <br>
PUBLISHER: Cambridge University Press <br>YEAR: 2007 <br><br>Matthew T. Carlson, Department of Psychology, University of Chicago <br><br>SUMMARY <br>This book provides a detailed evaluation of the question of a biological <br>
critical period (CP) for both first (L1A) and second (L2A) language acquisition, <br>with the primary goal of assessing the existence of such a CP for either of <br>these processes. Given this rather straightforward goal, Herschensohn takes <br>
great care to provide a very precise definition of a strictly biological <br>(maturational) CP, and in so doing produces a complex framework for <br>differentiating CP effects from other kinds of age-related changes in the human <br>
ability to acquire language. Consistent with this nuanced approach, the book <br>takes a broad perspective on language acquisition that incorporates theories of <br>Universal Grammar (UG), language processing, experience of language, social <br>
factors, individual differences, and neural architecture and development. The <br>need for such a complex approach is well-motivated, and these diverse areas of <br>research and theory are well integrated given the constraints of space in this <br>
volume. The book is thus well-suited for an audience with some background <br>knowledge in at least some of these areas interested in the effects of age on <br>language acquisition. Readers with particular interest in one area will find <br>
that area placed usefully in a broader context. Although the book is couched in <br>terms of a binary question regarding the existence of a biological CP, asking <br>the question separately for L1A and L2A, the result goes beyond simple binary <br>
distinctions to open the way for further research on the impact of particular <br>age-related factors on specific facets of language acquisition. <br><br>Following an introductory chapter, two chapters each are dedicated to L1A and <br>
L2A, first describing the general process of acquisition (Chapters 2 and 4) and <br>then considering the influence of age on each process, respectively (Chapters 3 <br>and 5). The final two chapters amplify the discussion of the linguistic, social, <br>
and neurological factors in play and consider the role of age from the varied <br>perspectives presented in the book. <br><br>The first chapter lays out the central themes and questions to be addressed in <br>the book, and sets the theoretical context for the discussion. Herschensohn <br>
previews the structure of the analyses to come, briefly contrasting the <br>influence of age of acquisition (AoA) on L1A and L2A, introducing the <br>distinction between maturational and experiential factors, and describing how <br>
L1A and L2A can be (ethically) investigated. The following section reviews the <br>history of critical period research from the early studies on various nonhuman <br>species, amply discusses the work on birdsong, considered of particular <br>
relevance to human language research, and motivates the criteria to be used for <br>judging the evidence regarding language acquisition. These criteria encompass a <br>distinct onset and terminus, relationships to both an intrinsic maturational <br>
event and an extrinsic trigger, and effects on a particular system in the <br>organism (pp. 10-12). Crucially, critical periods are seen as a subset of <br>sensitive periods in that critical periods are associated with irreversible <br>
changes in brain function (Knudsen 2004), where sensitive periods may be <br>associated with less dramatic changes in ability due to maturation. <br><br>After laying this groundwork, the subsequent section on language and the brain <br>
reviews the history of critical period research on language since Lenneberg's <br>(1967) influential hypothesis, and sketches out evidence for the localization of <br>language functions in the brain and changes in brain plasticity associated with <br>
age, relying mainly on evidence from brain damage. The final section of Chapter <br>1 frames the discussion in terms of the ''nature-nurture'' debate by outlining <br>'associationist' and 'modularist' views of human language acquisition, with the <br>
former focusing on the role of the environment and the latter on innate <br>predispositions. Herschensohn makes an attempt to find middle ground between <br>these often polarized positions, and the chapter concludes by stressing the <br>
combined roles of input and a genetic predisposition, embedding the question of <br>''which innate and environmental factors determine'' L1A and L2A deeply in the <br>discussion. <br><br>Chapters 2 and 4 are structured into sections on phonology, the lexicon, syntax, <br>
and morphology, reviewing the sequence and stages of L1A and L2A, respectively. <br>Chapter 2 describes both general stages (e.g. babbling, the optional infinitive <br>period) and acquisitional hierarchies (e.g. uncontractible copula before <br>
contractible copula). The discussion is balanced between stressing the evidence <br>for innate structural predispositions and describing the role of environmental <br>factors and cogently, if briefly, assessing a variety of viewpoints on their <br>
value, scope, and significance. The review is comprehensive, beginning with the <br>earliest environmental influences on the various components of grammar, from <br>newborns' sensitivity to native language prosody and the development of L1 sound <br>
categories. Indeed, the acquisition of prosody before higher levels of structure <br>in L1A will be a central feature distinguishing L1A from L2A. The chapter links <br>the levels of grammar sequentially, from phonology to word learning, and <br>
eventually syntax. However, the sequential and dependent nature of different <br>levels of structure and the interdependence between the levels of grammar, such <br>as how the accumulation of lexical items may lead to more detailed phonemic and <br>
phonotactic sensitivity (e.g. Vihman 1996), are somewhat simplified. <br><br>The third chapter provides a broad and ambitious review of the evidence for <br>age-related declines in L1 acquisition ability, concluding that ''there are <br>
periods of heightened sensitivity for the acquisition of first language'' (p. 99) <br>but stopping short of concluding that there is a single critical period. <br>Herschensohn instead argues for a series of thresholds whose decline is not <br>
necessarily precipitous, and points out other areas of language (e.g. vocabulary <br>acquisition) in which there seems to be no apparent decline due to age. The <br>chapter consists of two sections, examining exceptional L1A in individuals with <br>
atypical brains (e.g. Down Syndrome) and in those with atypical experience of <br>language (e.g. deaf children in certain situations). The first argues for a <br>dissociation between language and other cognitive abilities. The second begins <br>
by reviewing cases of extreme isolation, acknowledging the profound limitations <br>of such cases for L1A in general and at the same time making measured claims <br>about what they do reveal. The phenomenon of international adoption is also <br>
touched upon, in which children are frequently placed in a different linguistic <br>environment, often after relatively impoverished L1 experiences. Farther on, <br>extensive attention is given to research on deaf individuals whose first access <br>
to language may occur at varying ages for various reasons. This population <br>provides the core of Herschensohn's argument for age-related sensitivities to <br>various aspects of language, that contribute to a more gradual decline. Ample <br>
attention is also given to creole formation and the notion that children drive <br>the systematization of creoles by imposing their innate linguistic knowledge on <br>more variable pidgin input, although Herschensohn is also careful to point out <br>
the controversial nature of this notion of creole genesis (Bickerton 1981, <br>DeGraff 1999). <br><br>The fourth chapter parallels the second in describing the process of L2A, <br>similarly addressing the domains of phonology, the lexicon, syntax, and <br>
morphology. This chapter sets the stage for the ensuing discussion of age by <br>constructing a nuanced perspective on the comparison of L1 and L2 attainment. <br>Herschensohn is careful to explore the qualitative similarities in both process <br>
and grammatical knowledge of L1 and L2, pointing out that differences in final <br>attainment, or even more core UG-related concepts such as parameter clustering, <br>do not necessarily signify a qualitative difference between L1A and L2A. The <br>
chapter gives a comprehensive review of older models of SLA, beginning with <br>Contrastive Analysis and spending a fair amount of time on the Fundamental <br>Difference Hypothesis and the ensuing debates about the role of UG in adult L2A. <br>
Herschensohn concludes that L1A and L2A are similar, but differ in schedule and <br>in the variety of other factors that come into play. This conclusion of <br>similarity is the pivot into the direct consideration of age in L2A. <br>
<br>Continuing the parallel structure of the book, the fifth chapter broadly <br>examines the question of a critical period for L2A. The chapter is <br>contextualized in a UG framework, and Herschensohn is careful to disentangle the <br>
notions of sensitive and critical periods as well as non-biological (non-UG) <br>age-related factors as well. Age-related decline is not the same as a <br>biologically determined sensitive or critical period, and this discussion sets <br>
the stage for the subsequent reviews of the literature on AoA, L2 learning in <br>exceptional populations, and end state L2 grammar in children and adults. Based <br>on the ubiquity of variability in L2 attainment regardless of age, the fact that <br>
some children acquiring an L2 do not become nativelike speakers, the fact that <br>some adults do become nativelike speakers, and the lack of a clear inflection in <br>age related declines, the chapter concludes that the evidence does not support a <br>
critical period for L2A. <br><br>Having presented detailed and convincing arguments that age-related changes in <br>L2 acquisition ability are not related to a biological critical period (or at <br>the very least that there is no conclusive evidence for such a view), Chapter 6 <br>
moves to consider what other factors might account for the effects of age. <br>Herschensohn first discusses research on external (environmental) and internal <br>(affect, motivation, aptitude, and other learner) variables. The rest of the <br>
chapter deals with ''language and the brain'', first giving a basic overview of <br>brain structure and anatomical development, and then discussing a sampling of <br>the psycholinguistic and neuroimaging findings on language processing and <br>
localization. The review is necessarily superficial, but supports the conclusion <br>that L2 processing and representation are qualitatively similar to the L1, <br>differing quantitatively in the timing, strength, and extent of neural responses. <br>
<br>The final chapter comprises a detailed summary of the entire book, beginning <br>with a recapitulation of the definition(s) of a biological critical period and <br>the biological and other reasons that might underlie other age-related <br>
differences in language acquisition. The bulk of the chapter ties each of the <br>areas addressed earlier in the book to the notion of a biological critical <br>period for either first or second language acquisition, or both. The discussion <br>
on language and the brain includes a useful if brief presentation of theories <br>concerning declarative and procedural knowledge (Ullman 2001) and gives welcome <br>importance to the incorporation of processing in theories of bilingualism and <br>
L2A. This section is followed by reviews of the conclusions reached for child <br>L1A, child L2A, and adult L2A. While it is necessarily more superficial, readers <br>wishing to gain an overview of the arguments and data could obtain a basic sense <br>
from reading this chapter before delving into the greater detail in the <br>preceding chapters. Of course, this also makes it a good recapitulation, and <br>Herschensohn carefully ties each section back to the primary question regarding <br>
biological critical periods for language acquisition. <br><br>EVALUATION <br>This book is a timely, well-researched, and useful contribution to clarifying <br>the issue of age effects on language acquisition. While Herschensohn is not the <br>
first to discuss the specific nature of biological critical periods, this book <br>breaks ground in contextualizing maturational changes among the myriad <br>influences that change how individuals at different ages interact with language <br>
in their environment during acquisition. Still more crucially, this book <br>provides a nuanced evaluation of the necessarily different nature of L1A and the <br>learning of any subsequent language at any age, and allows for an understanding <br>
of L2A as a continually evolving process responding to biological, contextual, <br>and internal factors but not subject to a critical period per se. The <br>conclusions are a bit more complex for L1A, as Herschensohn distinguishes early <br>
periods of heightened sensitivity to some aspects of language, particularly <br>morphosyntax and phonology. The concluding sections state her position perhaps <br>more clearly: ''Language is a human characteristic whose neural expression is <br>
established early in childhood, yet it is open to expansion throughout the <br>lifetime in terms of native vocabulary or additional languages'' (p. 240), and <br>after L1A ''the speaker's brain is permanently altered, so acquisition of <br>
subsequent languages could never be comparable'' (p. 234), although it clearly <br>builds on the foundation provided by the L1, which accounts for the obvious <br>similarities. <br><br>The final paragraph offers a tantalizing new perspective, asking why, in the <br>
face of critical periods for many animal communication systems, human language <br>does not show a biological critical period, but can rather be ''reimplement[ed]'' <br>(p. 241). By thus turning the question on its head, Herschensohn opens the door <br>
to seeing language acquisition as a lifelong developmental process of <br>interleaved changes in social environment, linguistic input, prior knowledge, <br>processing and learning mechanisms, and even UG. However, the book would benefit <br>
from a greater development of this idea and its implications than is present. <br>For example, while knowledge of an L2 is held to be qualitatively similar to L1, <br>the book also sees them as fundamentally different based on the fact that L2A <br>
occurs on the foundation of L1A. This leads to the natural conclusion, stated in <br>the book, that L2 speakers can never become completely native in their <br>knowledge, processing, or use of an L2 (although the differences may be <br>
exquisitely subtle). Nonetheless, the bulk of the arguments rest on research <br>comparing L2 speakers to native speaker standards. While this is pervasive in <br>the literature and therefore inevitable in a review, the usefulness of the <br>
native speaker standard bears some questioning (Birdsong 2005, Hall et al. <br>2006). More significantly, Herschensohn's perspective invites discussion of the <br>hybridity of multilinguals' competence. Again, this idea of multicompetence <br>
(Cook 1991, 2003) is mentioned briefly, but the book stops short of considering <br>this as a primary way of defining the expected outcomes of L2A. <br><br>A further minor criticism is the relatively simplified presentation of <br>
alternatives to innatism as 'associationist' approaches. There are many diverse <br>ways of modeling the emergence of grammar from experience (Bybee 2006), some of <br>which prefer not to posit any innate structure until absolutely necessary <br>
(Langacker 2000), while others attempt to integrate nuanced models with innate <br>prespecifications (Jackendoff 2002), possibly leaving the boundaries of UG for <br>the moment undetermined. While this does not necessarily change the arguments in <br>
the book, the portrayal of associationist approaches only in terms of <br>connectionist modeling obscures the detail and empirical scope of work exploring <br>how grammatical categories themselves may arise through domain-general learning <br>
processes acting on input, without innate structural specifications. <br>Nonetheless, Herschensohn gives a prominent place to both general and <br>domain-specific processes in driving age effects in language acquisition. <br>
<br>In sum, this book presents a thorough, readable, and well-reasoned discussion of <br>the question of age in both L1A and L2A research. In it, Herschensohn <br>perceptively disentangles the complex facets of the development of the human <br>
capacity for language from early childhood through adulthood. She makes sense of <br>a vast body of literature, moving beyond simple questions about the existence of <br>critical or sensitive periods for language to a detailed framework in which the <br>
obvious changes in how language acquisition proceeds in different age groups can <br>be profitably examined. <br><br>REFERENCES <br>Bickerton, D. (1981). _Roots of language_. Ann Arbor: Karoma. <br><br>Birdsong, D. (2005). Nativelikeness and non-nativelikeness in L2A research. <br>
_International Review of Applied Linguistics_ 43: 319-328. <br><br>Bybee, J. (2006). From usage to grammar: The mind's response to repetition. <br>_Language_ 82(4): 711-733. <br><br>Cook, V. (1991). The poverty of the stimulus argument and multi-competence. <br>
_Second Language Research_ 7:103-117. <br><br>Cook, V. (Ed.) (2003). _Effects of the second language on the first_. Clevedon: <br>Multilingual Matters. <br><br>DeGraff, M. (1999). _Language creation and language change_. Cambridge, MA: MIT <br>
Press. <br><br>Hall, J. K., Cheng, A., & Carlson, M. T. (2006). Reconceptualizing <br>multicompetence as a theory of language knowledge. _Applied Linguistics_ 27(2): <br>220-240. <br><br>Jackendoff, R. (2002). _Foundations of language: Brain, meaning, grammar, <br>
evolution_. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <br><br>Knudsen, E. I. (2004). Sensitive periods in the development of the brain and <br>behavior. _Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience_ 16: 1412-1425. <br><br>Langacker, R. W. (2000). A dynamic usage-based model. In M. Barlow & S. Kemmer <br>
(Eds.), _Usage-based models of language_. Stanford: CSLI. 1-63. <br><br>Lenneberg, E. H. (1967). _Biological foundations of language_. New York: Wiley. <br><br>Ullman, M. T. (2001). The declarative/procedural model of lexicon and grammar. <br>
_Journal of Psycholinguistic Research_. 30: 37-69. <br><br>Vihman, M. M. (1996). _Phonological development: The origins of language in the <br>child_. Oxford: Blackwell. <br><br>ABOUT THE REVIEWER <br>Dr. Carlson is a postdoctoral fellow in developmental psychology at the <br>
University of Chicago. He is interested in probabilistic grammar, the structure <br>of the L1 and L2 lexicon, second language acquisition across age groups, and the <br>role of manual gesture in bilingualism.</div>
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