<div dir="ltr"><div> Language Evolution</div>
<div><br><br><br>Announced at <a href="http://linguistlist.org/issues/19/19-841.html">http://linguistlist.org/issues/19/19-841.html</a> <br>AUTHOR: Mufwene, Salikoko S.</div>
<div>Language Evolution: Contact, Competition and Change <br>PUBLISHER: Continuum International Publishing Group Ltd <br>YEAR: 2008 <br><br>Susan Lixia Cheng, School of English Studies, University of Nottingham & School <br>
of Foreign Languages Studies, Dalian University of Technology <br><br>SUMMARY <br>Examining the development of creoles in many parts of the world, Salikoko S. <br>Mufwene in this book offers unconventional insights into fundamental principles <br>
of language contact and language change. He questions traditional linguistic <br>notions like 'system', 'transmission' and adopts biological concepts such as <br>'ecology', 'competition and selection' to illustrate the similarities between <br>
languages and viral species and highlight mutual accommodation among individuals <br>as a prerequisite for emergent communal behavior. This book shows how the <br>development of language can be illuminated by using the concepts of evolutionary <br>
theory. It provides an interesting reading to anyone working in sociolinguistics <br>and language contact. <br><br>The book collects seven revised versions of previously published articles since <br>Mufwene (2001) and three new articles (chapters 4, 6 and 13). Altogether there <br>
are fourteen chapters divided into three parts: ''Population dynamics and <br>language evolution'' (Part 1, chapters 2-6), which introduces the assumptions of <br>language evolution and the approaches to the study of creoles; ''Competition, <br>
selection, and the development of creoles'' (Part 2, chapters 7-10), which <br>investigates the mechanisms of structural change in creoles and explores the <br>similarities and differences in the evolutions of creoles and indigenized <br>
varieties of European languages; ''Globalization and language vitality'' (Part 3, <br>chapters 11-14), which focuses on globalization and language vitality, and ends <br>with a case study of the resilience of Gullah. <br>
<br>In chapter 1, ''Prologue'', the author gives an introduction to the main topics of <br>the book, four of which are directly linked to the term 'language evolution': <br>structural change, language speciation, language birth and language death. <br>
Definitions of the key concepts like 'imperfect replication', 'invisible hand' <br>and 'globalization' are also summarized here. The assumption of the book is that <br>the evolutions of communal languages are determined ''not only by the ecologies <br>
in which they are practiced but also by some of their ontogenetic properties <br>that make them different from biological species'' (p.2). <br><br>Chapter 2, ''Language evolution: The population genetics way'', puts forward an <br>
analogy between languages and viral species in the sense that both of them are <br>parasitic, depending on their hosts' activities and patterns of social <br>interaction. But unlike viruses which start life with a fully structured <br>
genotype by gene recombination, idiolects develop as individuals learn to <br>produce increasingly complex utterances with the features copied with <br>modification. When explaining why a biological approach is adopted, Mufwene <br>
claims that this comparative study between languages and viral species suggests <br>''linguistics and biology can very well inspire each other in addressing <br>evolutionary issues'' (p.28). <br><br>In chapter 3, ''Population movements and contacts in language evolution'', the <br>
author examines the development of the Romance languages and their non-creole <br>offspring in Europe and observes that there are the same kinds of shift and <br>restructuring process as in the evolution of the Romance creoles. He thus claims <br>
that population movements and contacts motivate language diversification: <br>inter-idiolectal contact favors different variants from the same feature pool <br>and thereby changes the balance of power among competing variants. He also <br>
suggests that the distinction between changes induced by contact and those <br>independent of contact (cf. Thomason 2001) is misleading because contact is <br>ubiquitous and it motivates both internal and external change. <br>
<br>Titled ''How population-wide patterns emerge in language evolution: A comparison <br>with highway traffic'', chapter 4 compares the dynamics of language evolution <br>with the flow of traffic in order to show how patterns have emerged through the <br>
'invisible hand' and the role of individual speakers as ''unwitting agents of <br>change'' (p.59). This comparison originates in Keller (1994) which claims that <br>the convergence of behaviors is motivated by the particular ecologies to which <br>
the individuals respond. Mufwene argues that like traffic, language evolution <br>reflects the cumulative actions of individual speakers and the focus on <br>individuals makes it possible to explain the relationship between population <br>
contact and language varieties. <br><br>In chapter 5, ''What do creoles and pidgins tell us about the evolution of <br>language?'', Mufwene argues that children are not the innovators of new <br>structures though they do adopt some of the adults' innovations into their own <br>
idiolects. He then claims that the alleged pidgin ancestry of creoles is <br>questionable, and structural similarities between expanded pidgins and creoles <br>reflect the fact that they were developed by adults using materials from related <br>
European and substrate languages to meet diverse communicative needs. He also <br>suggests that creoles should be compared with the nonstandard vernaculars spoken <br>by the European indentured servants with whom non-European labor interacted <br>
regularly, but not with the standard varieties of European languages. <br><br>Chapter 6, ''Race, racialism, and the study of language evolution in America'', <br>takes on the race-based prejudice in recent linguistic research. In the analysis <br>
of race and ethnicity in American history, Mufwene argues that race and <br>segregation can explain the differences between the evolution of creoles and <br>that of their non-creole kin spoken by populations of European descent. He also <br>
claims that the reason why African Americans have not been involved in the <br>Northern Cities Vowel Shift (cf. Labov 2001) is that ''race barriers have <br>prevented them from socializing (regularly) with European Americans and have <br>
discouraged them from identifying linguistically with members of other races'' <br>(p.112). <br><br>Chapter 7, ''Competition and selection in language evolution'', examines hybridism <br>in the development of creoles. The author observes that ''individual speakers <br>
contribute variably to the communal pool from which the learner draws the <br>materials for his/her idiolect'' (p.132) to adapt to different ecological <br>situations, so competition and selection are inherent in the dynamics of <br>
language evolution. He also claims that contact is everywhere and each language <br>has been influenced by other languages or emerged from the contact of several <br>languages. <br><br>Chapter 8, ''Transfer and the substrate hypothesis in creolistics'', addresses <br>
various versions of the substrate hypothesis of which the biggest problem, <br>Mufwene points out, is methodological, because most of its claims are based on <br>insufficient evidence. As a population-level phenomenon, substrate influence <br>
results from both the recurrence of xenolectal elements in some idiolects and <br>their spread within the speech community. Second Language Acquisition research, <br>in his view, cannot offer much information about the influence of substrate <br>
elements on the development of creoles since it ''offers nothing that can be <br>compared to the inter-idiolectal mechanisms of competition and selection that <br>led to the emergence of communal norms in creoles'' (p.159). <br>
<br>In chapter 9, ''Grammaticization in the development of creoles'', Mufwene argues <br>that grammaticization is one of the restructuring processes that have produced <br>creoles by way of extending their lexifiers' constructions to new grammatical <br>
functions. The recent evolution of creoles highlights the inventiveness of the <br>speakers who reuse old patterns to express new meanings. Grammaticization shows <br>how the emergent typology may help us to understand ''the way the linguistic mind <br>
guides structural exaptations to meet the varying communicative needs of <br>speakers'' (p.178). He also argues that grammaticization need not be unilinear or <br>rectilinear, and the investigation of the development of creoles can shed light <br>
on the study of grammaticization. <br><br>With the title ''Multilingualism, 'creolization', and indigenization'', chapter 10 <br>focuses on societal multilingualism to show that a better understanding of the <br>
development of creoles and indigenized varieties can clarify the ecological <br>factors in the evolution of other languages. Speakers interact with each other <br>and respond to the immediate communicative challenges by using one variety or <br>
another. This interconnectedness enables them to produce similar idiolects which <br>converge into varieties of a communal language. The author also points out that <br>some notions like 'creolization', 'indigenization' show the biases toward <br>
non-European populations and their languages which should be Indo-European by <br>genetic classification. <br><br>Looking at the history of colonization and economic globalization, ''Language <br>birth and death'' (chapter 11) discusses the idea that language loss and <br>
speciation are byproducts of colonization, population movement and language <br>contact. Language birth and death often occur under the similar socioeconomic <br>conditions. The real agents of the two processes are speakers who select <br>
particular languages and allow them to thrive, and give up others to let them <br>become extinct, so terms like 'killer language', 'linguicide' are misused <br>because language has no agency in the processes at all. The author also points <br>
out that there is no way to revitalize some languages and even political <br>institutions cannot control the factors that have weakened their vitality. <br><br>In chapter 12, ''Globalization and the myth of killer languages: What's really <br>
going on?'', the author argues that colonization brings about both <br>interconnectedness in a complex system and vitality of languages. The recent <br>form of globalization differs from the earlier in the speed of communication and <br>
transportation, and the complexity of its organization, with ''multinational <br>corporations headquartered mostly in the western world, colonizing Third World <br>nations without ruling them politically'' (p.251). He claims again that it is the <br>
speakers who have opted to speak another language, which leads to the <br>endangerment of their indigenous languages. <br><br>Chapter 13, ''Myths of globalization: What African demolinguistics reveals'', <br>
examines the development of indigenous languages in South Africa and shows the <br>clear connection between language spread and economic development. The author <br>argues that the European languages have not always been the ones affecting <br>
indigenous languages since some indigenous languages have also ''displaced other <br>indigenous languages especially when they share vernacular functions for the <br>same populations'' (p.270). Spatial and societal multilingualism do not <br>
necessarily create the situations where one language must prevail at the expense <br>of others. It is the new socioeconomic world order and the population structures <br>of settlement colonization that determine what language to adopt to deal with <br>
the changing ecologies. <br><br>Chapter 14, ''A case study: The ecology of Gullah's survival'', discusses certain <br>ecological factors that have made Gullah stay almost the same since the <br>nineteenth century and free from debasilectalizing ''by assimilation to varieties <br>
of English spoken either by descendants of Europeans or by the educated middle <br>class'' (p.273). The author argues that Gullah is not endangered by <br>'decreolization' but by the ecological factors. The sense of linguistic and <br>
ethnic identity has led to the maintenance of Gullah's structural features and <br>the economic factors determine how much longer it will be spoken. <br><br>EVALUATION <br>The major contribution of the book under consideration is twofold. First, it <br>
represents a welcome attempt to relate linguistics to biology, thus helping to <br>cast new light on our quest to attain a better understanding of how language <br>really works. The analogy between languages and species originated in its <br>
predecessor, Mufwene (2001), in which the author criticizes the traditional <br>analogy between a language and an organism and puts forward another one between <br>languages and species, and he added in the conclusion ''a language is more like a <br>
bacterial, Lamarckian species than like an organism'' (Mufwene 2001: 207). In <br>this new book, however, he goes one step further to offer a comparison between <br>language and viral species, both of which share some properties which are <br>
extremely informative for understanding evolution in both biology and <br>linguistics. From all these we can see that the author is continuously trying to <br>refine his interpretation of language evolution and language contact, which <br>
undoubtedly makes significant contributions to the current linguistic research. <br><br>Second, the empirical support of the book is not exclusively centered on <br>European exploitation colonies of Africa. In fact, the case studies of creoles <br>
are from many parts of the world and throughout human history. The parallelisms <br>observed between language evolution in England since its settlement colonization <br>by the Germanics and that in North America since the European colonization are <br>
thought-provoking in that they make us question the so-called ''unnaturalness'' of <br>creoles. So are the similarities found between former European exploitation <br>colonies of Asia and Africa, and southwestern Europe as a former constellation <br>
of Roman town colonies. The more we know about the evolution of creoles around <br>the world through this book, the more questionable we find some fundamental <br>assumptions of creoles and language change. However, we cannot deny that <br>
creolization of Middle English (cf. Fennell 2001) is still a controversial issue <br>and more empirical backing is needed to justify it. <br><br>There are also some shortcomings which would have been remedied through rigorous <br>
editing, such as the typographical mistake of the word ''sztrong'' (p.123). The <br>use of acronyms for some terminologies is also chaotic: the abbreviations don't <br>appear at the first mention of the terms and even when they have been given, in <br>
the following part of the book the terms are written out in full again. For <br>example, the term 'primary linguistic data' first appears in full (p.18), and <br>strangely this appearance is not shown in the subject index; then the acronym <br>
PLD is mentioned (p.75) but the term is given in full again (p.182). The term <br>'language bioprogram hypothesis' has the same problem. Another typographical <br>problem is 'stammbaum' which sometimes appears italicized (as in p.12, 14, 30) <br>
and sometimes not (as in p.109, 201). One may ask if there is some difference <br>between the two forms. And the structure would be much clearer if the overlap <br>between some chapters could be reduced, especially in the last part of the book. <br>
<br>Such shortcomings notwithstanding, this is a fascinating book, challenging much <br>received wisdom and packed with innovative analysis of some traditional <br>linguistic issues. It is a must-read especially for those interested in the <br>
study of creoles and language contact. <br><br>REFERENCES <br>Fennell, Barbara A. (2001) _A History of English: A sociolinguistic approach_. <br>Oxford: Blackwell. <br><br>Keller, Rudi. (1994) _On Language Change: The invisible hand in language_. <br>
London: Routledge. <br><br>Labov, William. (2001) _Principles of Linguistic Change: Social factors_. <br>Malden, MA: Blackwell. <br><br>Mufwene, Salikoko S. (2001) _The Ecology of Language Evolution_. Cambridge: <br>Cambridge University Press. <br>
<br>Thomason, Sarah G. (2001) _Language Contact: An introduction_. Washington, DC: <br>Georgetown University Press. <br><br>ABOUT THE REVIEWER <br>Susan Lixia Cheng holds a PhD in English Language and Linguistics and is an <br>
associate professor at Dalian University of Technology, China. She is doing <br>one-year postdoctoral research in the University of Nottingham in 2008. Her <br>current research interests include language change, grammaticalization, <br>
historical linguistics and English history.<br></div>
<div><a href="http://linguistlist.org/issues/19/19-2952.html">http://linguistlist.org/issues/19/19-2952.html</a><br clear="all"><br>-- <br>=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+<br><br>Harold F. Schiffman<br><br>Professor Emeritus of <br>
Dravidian Linguistics and Culture <br>Dept. of South Asia Studies <br>University of Pennsylvania<br>Philadelphia, PA 19104-6305<br><br>Phone: (215) 898-7475<br>Fax: (215) 573-2138 <br>
<br>Email: <a href="mailto:haroldfs@gmail.com">haroldfs@gmail.com</a><br><a href="http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~haroldfs/">http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~haroldfs/</a> <br><br>-------------------------------------------------<br>
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