<div><strong>STATUS AND PROSPECTS OF THE RUSSIAN LANGUAGE IN THE NEW INDEPENDENT STATES</strong>
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<p class="small" align="right"><i><b>KIRILL GAVRILOV, ELENA KOZIEVSKAYA, ELENA YATSENKO,<br>The Eurasia Heritage Foundation, Moscow</b></i></p>
<p align="justify">One of the major resources that the New Independent States (NIS) inherited from the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union is the Russian language. During several generations the Russian people have put all the huge human and financial resources in its development. What is the current position and what are the prospects of the Russian language in the NIS? Do people living in the former Soviet republics understand and appreciate a generous gift of their fathers and grandfathers who have provided them with such a competitive advantage in the globalized world?</p>
<p align="justify">It is obvious that for the formulation of an adequate language policy both in Russia and the NIS it is not enough to be guided by the general data that the Russian-speaking area is reducing quickly and by the approximate and frequently outdated estimations of number of people who know Russian. We should pay our attention to the fact that the only profound monitoring of the status of the Russian language is the Report of the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, which was prepared on the basis of 2000-2001 period data and published in 2003.</p>
<p align="justify">The research carried out by the <a href="http://www.fundeh.org/eng/">Eurasia Heritage Foundation</a> in 2005-2007 allows us to fill in partly the shortage of an actual and trustworthy information about the position of the Russian language in the NIS<span><span><span><span>[1]</span></span></span></span>.</p>
<p align="justify"><strong>The estimation of the spread of the Russian language</strong> in the post-Soviet space has been carried out on the basis of comparison of two interconnected parameters: the part of population who has a good command of Russian and the frequency of use of Russian in various spheres of life.</p>
<p align="justify">The first parameter was supposed to be revealed as a result of the analysis of self-estimation of proficiency in Russian (Picture 1).</p>
<h6 align="justify">Picture 1. Self-estimations of proficiency in Russian</h6>
<p align="center"><img height="306" alt="" src="http://www.eurasianhome.org/Image/rusl-en01.gif" width="530"> </p>
<p align="justify">In Belarus three quarters of interviewed people have estimated their proficiency in Russian most highly (I speak, write and read fluently in Russian). From 50 up to 70% of respondents in Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Latvia, and Moldova gave the same estimation. In these countries the percent of those who assure that do not know Russian (from 1 up to 4%) is minimal, the share of those who understand but don't speak Russian is also insignificant.</p>
<p align="justify">In other countries (Armenia, Georgia, Kyrgyzstan, Lithuania, Tajikistan, Estonia) the level of expansion of Russian has some similarity: about a half of the respondents consider that they have more (write without mistakes) or less (write with mistakes) fluent Russian. About every tenth person (from 7 up to 13 %) approves, that does not know Russian absolutely, besides that, from 10 up to 20% cannot speak and though understand Russian. That is to say, as a whole the share of those who cannot speak Russian at all does not exceed 20-30%.</p>
<p align="justify">The lowest level of proficiency in Russian was revealed in Azerbaijan. There was the least percent of the respondents approving that they know Russian well (speak, write and read in Russian without mistakes or with mistakes) – 42%. Thus almost equal quantity of respondents (38%), by their own estimations, cannot speak Russian, and almost a quarter of them (23%) do not know Russian at all.</p>
<p align="justify">The second parameter is the use of Russian in various spheres of life. This parameter is important for an estimation of the general prevalence of Russian, as the knowledge of Russian is just a necessary condition of its application. During the research the questions concerning a language used by respondents for communication with family members at home, informally with friends and at work/study were asked.</p>
<p align="justify">Practice of use of Russian in family allows us to divide the countries into three groups (Picture 2):</p>
<ol>
<li>
<div align="justify">The countries where Russian is used in family communication much more often or approximately at the same level as the national language – Belarus, Kazakhstan and Ukraine.</div>
<li>
<div align="justify">The countries where the portion of the Russian-speaking families is wide enough, but nevertheless it is appreciable less than a share of families which use the national language - Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Moldova, Estonia.</div>
<li>
<div align="justify">The countries with primary use of the national language in family communication - Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia, Lithuania and Tajikistan.</div></li></li></li></ol>
<h6 align="justify">Picture 2. Language of communication in family, at home</h6>
<p align="center"><img height="290" alt="" src="http://www.eurasianhome.org/Image/rusl-en02.gif" width="534"> </p>
<p align="justify">The similar picture can be seen during the analysis of the use of Russian in the informal communication (with friends) and also in professional sphere (at work/study).</p>
<p align="justify">The generalization of data of application of Russian allows us to draw a conclusion that in Belarus, Kazakhstan and Ukraine the Russian language is used in all three spheres more often. In Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Moldova and Estonia Russian is used often enough, however the national language prevails. In other countries such as Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia, Lithuania and Tajikistan Russian is used seldom in all of three spheres.</p>
<p align="justify">Below is an estimation of a share of the population who has a good command of Russian, and also the generalized parameter of the use of Russian in three spheres<span><span><span><span>[2]</span></span></span></span> (Tab.1).</p>
<h6 align="justify">Table 1. The generalized parameters of prevalence of the Russian language among adult population</h6>
<p align="center"><strong></strong></p>
<p align="center"><img height="265" alt="" src="http://www.eurasianhome.org/Image/rusl-en03.gif" width="640"></p>
<p align="justify">Thus, the obtained data allows us to <strong>differentiate the countries on prevalence of Russian</strong>. The maximal prevalence is observed in Belarus, Kazakhstan and Ukraine. In these countries about 70% of adult population speak Russian fluently.</p>
<p align="justify">The minimal prevalence of Russian is observed in Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Lithuania and Tajikistan. Here no more than a third of total population has a good command of Russian and also Russian is used seldom enough in three spheres of communication.</p>
<p align="justify">In other countries such as Latvia, Moldova, Kyrgyzstan and Estonia Russian is well known by many people; however, the corresponding share does not exceed 60%. The sphere of communication in Russian is also limited in great degree.</p>
<p align="justify">Let's pay attention to the fact that the high level of proficiency in Russian is observed in those countries where a real communication in the Russian language takes place most intensively. Thus observed disproportions can testify that Russian is demanded in insufficient degree, so it can lose its positions in future. Thus in Ukraine with a high level of expansion of Russian the frequency of its use in three spheres of the life is lower than in Kazakhstan that probably testifies indirectly that position of Russian in Ukraine will worsen much more quickly.</p>
<p align="justify">Within the frameworks of the research the other way which allows estimating <strong>the</strong><strong>prospects of Russian in the NIS</strong> was also used. It is the comparison of a level of proficiency in Russian of the adult population (they were participants of mass interviews) and their children/grandchildren (the level of their proficiency in the Russian language was estimated by adult members of family). The more the gap, the higher the probability of the fact that Russian can lose its positions in prospect<span><span><span><span>[3]</span></span></span></span> (Tab. 2).</p>
<h6 align="justify">Table 2. Level of proficiency in Russian by adult population and their children/grandchildren</h6>
<p align="center"><strong> <img height="249" alt="" src="http://www.eurasianhome.org/Image/rusl-en04.gif" width="639"></strong></p>
<p align="justify">The research has shown that in each of these groups of the countries there are states where the difference between generations in the level of proficiency in Russian is great enough. Among the countries with the maximal prevalence of Russian it is Ukraine, among the countries with an average level - Estonia and Latvia, and among the countries with a low level - Lithuania.</p>
<p align="justify">It means that in prospect with an absence of changes in internal policy of the country and also without the influence of external factors Ukraine with greater probability can join the group of the countries with average prevalence of Russian, Estonia and Latvia would join the group of countries with low prevalence of Russian, and Lithuania substantially can "drop out" of Russian-speaking space.</p>
<p align="justify">Prospects of the Russian language in the post-Soviet space cannot be estimated only by studying its prevalence. Extremely important parameter is the policy concerning Russian in the NIS which can both: aggravate available negative tendencies and, on the contrary, smooth them out. During the research an attempt to systematize <strong>data about the status of the Russian language</strong> in the NIS and to compare this information with the data about quantity of the Russian-speaking population has been undertaken (Tab. 3).</p>
<p align="justify">The attention to legislatively fixed status of the language is not casual. In every country a level of the state financing of everything connected with the support and the development of the language depends on that. The share of pupils studying in Russian in the corresponding countries is showed as an original "indicator" of a state policy concerning Russian.</p>
<h6 align="justify">Table 3. Features of the position of Russian in the <span>NIS</span></h6>
<p align="center"><span><img height="403" alt="" src="http://www.eurasianhome.org/Image/rusl-en05.gif" width="643"></span></p>
<p align="justify"><strong></strong></p>
<p align="justify"><font size="1">*According to the Article 7 of the Constitution of the Republic Kazakhstan, Russian «is used in the state organizations and institutions of local government equally with the Kazakh language».</font></p>
<p align="justify"><font size="1">** Data of official statistics (2005-2006).</font></p>
<p align="justify">During the research, a number of the general tendencies in development of legal base regulating the status of the Russian language in the countries have been revealed.</p>
<p align="justify">First of all, in the legislation of the overwhelming majority of the NIS the official language status is not appropriated to the Russian language and the system of legal guarantees for its application and development is not established. Most precisely and consistently in a question of legislative definition of the status of language acts Belarus, which has recognized Russian to be the official language. The legislation of the Republic of Kyrgyzstan which has recognized Russian as an official language contains a number of legal guarantees on protection of languages of peoples living in Kyrgyzstan.</p>
<p align="justify">Secondly, even those countries that in the 90th of the last century endowed Russian with the status of 'language of interethnic dialogue' by the legislative inertia of the Soviet period either have already excluded corresponding positions of legal certificates by present moment, or they are in a stage of realization of the state programs directed on protection of a state language and frequently against Russian.</p>
<p align="justify">Thirdly, the attitude towards the Russian language reflected in the legislation of the New Independent States somewhat is consequence of the general attitude to the Russian policy and Russia as a whole. In particular, the most adverse law-making policy concerning Russian can be observed in the Baltic States and the South Caucasus.</p>
<p align="justify">Fourthly, as a result of that policy a significant reduction of the number of Russian schools, the centers of the Russian language and culture, Russian-speaking mass media (including printed) is observed in the majority of the New Independent States.</p>
<p align="justify">Fifthly, frequently there is no system of norms of a legal status of the official language and other languages in the legislation of the New Independent States, unlike the legislation of Russia. In those countries which legislation contains regulations about the status of Russian, interpretation of these norms has an inconsistent and ambiguous character.</p>
<p align="justify">Besides, the official status not always reflects the real position of Russian in those countries. Moreover, an obvious correlation between the status and prevalence and frequently the state policy concerning Russian is not observed nowadays. We shall give two examples. In Belarus, Russian is an official language. This country is characterized by the maximal prevalence of Russian. In this case a full conformity of real position of the Russian language and the state policy concerning it is observed in Belarus. On the contrary, in Azerbaijan Russian has no official status, only a small share of the population has a good command of Russian, whereas a great number of pupils are studying in Russian (in comparison with other states of the South Caucasus). It is represented, that similar discrepancies require additional studying. </p>
<p align="justify">We believe that opportunities for development of Russian will be wider in those of the NIS where it will have a high legal status. However, the great importance for prospects of Russian would firstly have the real measures of a state policy concerning Russian, secondly, the great demand for studying Russian. For this reason an attempt to analyze<strong> the </strong><strong>need of the population for studying Russian</strong> has been undertaken during the research.</p>
<p align="justify">Data of the official statistics and the results of the polls testify that:</p>
<ul>
<li>
<div align="justify">The most acute problem with studying in Russian remains in Armenia, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan, and over these countries the need for strengthening of the positions of Russian in the sphere of education dominates.</div>
<li>
<div align="justify">The populations of Azerbaijan and Lithuania as a whole do not consider necessary the widening of the opportunities for studying Russian and in it; they consider a current situation to be comprehensible.</div>
<li>
<div align="justify">In Belarus, Russian dominates in sphere of education and practically there is no social base among the population which would support attempts to weaken positions of Russian.</div>
<li>
<div align="justify">In other countries problems of education in Russian are in the stage of political discussions.</div></li></li></li></li></ul>
<p align="justify">Certainly, the state policy in the sphere of education in Russian can be differently appreciated by the population of the country. In the research it was supposed to reveal this estimation as a result of the analysis of answers to a question "How do you think, studying of Russian at schools should be expanded, reduced or it is necessary to leave all without changes?". A group of those who consider that current position should be left without changes with some clauses is an indicator of approval of current policy.</p>
<p align="justify">Belarus, where Russian has a recognized high status and where the majority of children study Russian, belongs to the first group. The same group includes Azerbaijan and Lithuania which population does not consider it important to expand studying Russian at schools. They are satisfied with the established format of studying Russian in an education system of the country as a whole. Kazakhstan belongs to the first group also where more than half of interviewed people consider that it is not necessary to change the situation with studying Russian at schools in the country. Thus, practically third of the whole population believes, that it is necessary to expand studying of Russian.</p>
<p align="justify">Similar polarity of opinions on state policy concerning Russian is typical for the second group of the countries. As a whole in Estonia, Moldova, Latvia, Georgia and Ukraine there is a reduction of studying in Russian at schools. Thus, from 35 up to 43 % of the population in these countries agree with that the developed distribution should be saved. However, approximately the same share of the population supports the expansion of studying of Russian at schools.</p>
<p align="justify">The countries, which population can not agree with present situation and considers that the expansion of studying of Russian at schools is necessary belong to the third group. Such picture is observed in Tajikistan and Armenia. In these countries the minimal number of pupils who study in Russian whereas an unequivocal position of the population has been fixed by the poll: which is the necessity of expanding of studying in Russian. Kyrgyzstan where, however, the situation is not so critical belongs to the same group also. On the one hand, in this country the part of pupils who study in Russian is higher than in Armenia and Tajikistan (more than 23% in comparison with 2%). On the other hand, in Kyrgyzstan the opinion, that it is necessary to expand studying of Russian is expressed much more seldom (61% in comparison with 84% in Armenia and 89% in Tajikistan).</p>
<p align="justify">The analysis of distribution of answers on another question «What is your attitude towards the support of the Russian language, which is given by the Russian government?» actually gives an identical picture. More often possible support of Russian positively accepted by people interviewed in Armenia (89% accept positively), in Tajikistan (84%) and in Kyrgyzstan (69%). At the same time, «interference of Russia» is regarded more negatively in Georgia (30% - for, 45% - against), and rather indifferent in Azerbaijan. As a whole, in this question positive attitude to the help of the Russian government is expressed in the Baltic States, nevertheless the share of those who consider it as an intervention in the internal affairs is also high enough here: Estonia (35%), Latvia (29%), Lithuania (26%).</p>
<p align="justify">It is important to mention a share of interviewed who wish to begin studying or to raise a level of Russian and also a share of the population which are mastering Russian language.</p>
<h6 align="justify">Picture 3. The need for studying Russian in comparison with the level of proficiency in the Russian language in the countries of research </h6>
<p align="center"><img height="217" alt="" src="http://www.eurasianhome.org/Image/rusl-en06.gif" width="522"> </p>
<p align="justify">At a level of the states the need for studying Russian is not connected with a level of possession of Russian directly. For example, in Belarus and Estonia the demand for studying Russian is identical, whereas the level of proficiency in a language in these countries differs: in Belarus it is high, and in Estonia it is two times lower.</p>
<p align="justify">In the Central Asian countries the inverse relationship between a level of knowledge of Russian and the desire to study is observed. In Kazakhstan Russian is well known, the situation is a little bit worse in Kyrgyzstan, and worst of all - in Tajikistan. On the contrary, the maximal need for studying Russian is in Tajikistan (67%), average is in Kyrgyzstan (37%) and minimal in Kazakhstan (19%). The population of Tajikistan displays the need for studying Russian, realizing, that a current level of possession is low enough. The data across Tajikistan among the interviewed countries show the highest share of the population which considers that it is necessary to expand studying Russian at schools. It shows a dissatisfaction of the people with the conditions and practical absence of an opportunity of studying Russian in the country.</p>
<p align="justify">In Armenia, as well as in Tajikistan, the demand for studying Russian is high, unlike other countries of the South Caucasus - Georgia and Azerbaijan, where the adult population practically does not wish to study Russian but is characterized by a low level of possession. In other words, the low level of possession is considered as satisfactory and not demanding any updating as a whole. </p>
<p align="justify">In the Baltic States the great demand for studying Russian is not at all observed. Lithuania is characterized with the lowest parameters of the number of people who wish to study Russian and with the lowest level of its possession.</p>
<p align="justify">In Belarus, Moldova and Ukraine the need for increase of a level of proficiency in Russian is poorly expressed. Thus in Moldova where people know Russian worse in comparison with Belarus and Ukraine the share wishing to study it is a little bit higher.</p>
<p align="justify">Thus, it is possible to note, that in two countries - Tajikistan and Armenia - the highest demand for studying Russian is generated and it is not yet satisfied.</p>
<p align="justify">The research of <strong>motivation of studying Russian</strong> shows that «it is important to study Russian, because it is useful in life». Besides, the analysis has shown that for adult population of the NIS Russian is significant by virtue of performance of following functions:</p>
<ol>
<li>
<div align="justify">Means of dialogue with Russian-speaking fellow citizens (at work, in everyday life, etc.). In other words, the most significant function of Russian is communicative - within the limits of the countries of interrogation. </div>
<li>
<div align="justify">Means of communication with friends/relatives in Russia and other CIS countries. Russian here acts as the means of the international dialogue.</div>
<li>
<div align="justify">The tool of transfer of a professional knowledge (it is necessary for reading the literature in Russian because of one's activity and employment).</div>
<li>
<div align="justify">Means of familiarizing with the Russian culture.</div></li></li></li></li></ol>
<p align="justify">Communicative function of Russian (mainly for the communication with Russian-speaking fellow citizens) was pointed out by not less than a half of the respondents in Belarus, Kazakhstan, Latvia, Ukraine and Estonia. In other countries such as Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia, Kyrgyzstan, Lithuania and Tajikistan this function also dominates, however because of significant narrowing of the Russian-speaking environment it is marked much more seldom in the above mentioned countries.</p>
<p align="justify">Thus, the <strong>results of an empirical part of the research</strong> allow us to draw a conclusion that there is a significant country specificity of position of Russian in the post-Soviet space. In this connection, there can not be any «universal solution» to support of Russian; on the contrary, the complex of measures with individual approach to each country should be developed. By the data of the research, there are certain problems connected with the Russian language in each country (except for Belarus, probably). Working on the support of Russian will be effective only in case of use of the differentiated approach. So, the complex of measures should be developed concerning the countries with high prevalence of Russian and with special accent on «problem points» (Ukraine). Absolutely different approaches should be applied to the countries with the minimal prevalence of Russian where it is necessary to accept all efforts for prevention of "loss" of the country out of Russian-speaking areas (Lithuania). It is also obvious that it is necessary to concentrate efforts in those countries where a great demand for studying Russian was observed (Armenia, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan).</p>
<p align="justify">As a whole, <strong>predicting the prospects of Russian in the NIS </strong><strong>and developing a complex of measures on its support</strong> it is necessary to consider that Russian is an extremely complicated institute which is being in the field of a political and ideological pressure. The attitude towards Russian is the reflection of social, economic and political processes and the contradictions which take place in the post-Soviet space. </p>
<p align="justify">On the one hand, Russian is frequently considered in the NIS as "brought" by Russia and Soviet Union, which means that it is an "alien" to national culture. On the other hand, Russian enables the communications between representatives of various ethnic groups both inside of the country, and at an international level.</p>
<p align="justify">It seems that the measures aimed at actualizing the communicative function of Russian and also at accentuation of the fact that Russian is the language of integration and globalization will meet the positive response both from the population and from the authorities. Russian is not only the property of the Russian ethnos but also of all inhabitants of the post-Soviet space. And prospects of Russian substantially depend on comprehension of this fact in the New Independent States.</p>
<hr align="left" width="33%" size="1">
<p align="justify"><font size="1"><span><span><span><span>[1]</span></span></span></span> The complex research was conducted in the frameworks of other international projects of the Eurasia Heritage Foundation during three years. At the finishing stage of the project the public opinion polls were carried out in the New Independent States in October-November 2007 in the frameworks of 8-th wave of the international project <a href="http://www.eurasiamonitor.org/">«Eurasia Monitor»</a> <font size="1">(except for Russia, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan). </font></font><font size="1">The results of the research have laid down to the basis of «The Russian language in the New Independent States» publication of the Eurasia Heritage Foundation <u><a href="http://www.fundeh.org/publications/books/2/">http://www.fundeh.org/publications/books/2/</a></u> or <u><a href="http://www.fundeh.org/projects/23">http://www.fundeh.org/projects/23</a>/</u>.</font></p>
<p align="justify"><font size="1"><span><span><span><span>[2]</span></span></span></span> The corresponding parameter is equal to 100% if all interviewed people use Russian as means of a dialogue in family, with friends, and also at work/study. Accordingly, the smaller share means that in this or that sphere the percent of the respondents using Russian is lower. This parameter does not give a priority to any of the spheres of use of Russian, considering them equivalent.</font></p>
<p align="justify"><font size="1"><span><span><span><span>[3] </span></span></span></span>In Table 2 the generalized parameter of a level of proficiency in Russian by children and grandchildren is shown (whereas separate questions were asked about both).</font></p>
<hr align="left" width="33%" size="1">
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