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<span class="meta-prep meta-prep-author">Posted on</span> <a href="http://www.merabsarpa.com/education/minority-education-policy-of-china-with-reference-to-tibet" title="12:09 am" rel="bookmark"><span class="entry-date">January 31, 2012</span></a> <span class="meta-sep">by</span> <span class="author vcard"><a class="url fn n" href="http://www.merabsarpa.com/author/kalsangwangdue" title="View all posts by Kalsang Wangdu">Kalsang Wangdu</a></span>
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<p><strong>Introduction</strong></p>
<p>From October 19 to 25, 2010, thousands of Tibetan students from six
schools in Qinghai Tibetan region (the only ethnic Tibetan region that
still uses the Tibetan language medium beyond primary school) staged
peaceful protests against the government plan to enforce Mandarin as the
medium of instruction by 2015, bringing to the fore China’s problematic
minority educational policy. They have raised the issues of cultural
autonomy and cultural assimilation in China, and demonstrate the role
education plays in cultural reproduction. China is a multiethnic nation
with 56 officially recognized ethnic nationalities. Of the total
population, the dominant Han nationality comprises 91.59% and the
remaining 55 ethnic minorities totaled around 108.46 million or 8.98%
(National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2001, p. 100). In the last six
decades of communist rule, the government’s linguistic policy has led
to perhaps the greatest language shift and loss in the world (Zhou,
2000). In larger discourse on the relationship between the Chinese
government and minority groups, educational policy in general and
language policy in particular is one of the core issues of conflict.
This paper critically examines the Chinese government’s rhetorical
discourses on minority education by looking at the current state of
education in Tibet, and focuses on school education in terms of the
Tibetan language and cultural components of the curriculum against the
backdrop of constitutional and legal provisions.</p>
<div id="attachment_764" class="wp-caption aligncenter" style="width:420px"><a href="http://www.merabsarpa.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/stu_protest11.jpg"><img class="size-full wp-image-764 " src="http://www.merabsarpa.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/stu_protest11.jpg" alt="" width="410" height="307"></a><p class="wp-caption-text">
Tibetan students' protest, Amdo Tibet, October 2010.</p></div>
<p><strong>Constitutional provisions for minority education: </strong></p>
<p><strong> </strong>China took control of Tibet in 1950, and initially followed a gradualist approach to transform Tibetan society. The 17<sup>th</sup>
Point Agreement signed between the Tibetan and Chinese governments in
May 1951 states that “the spoken and written language and school
education of the Tibetan nationality shall be developed step by step in
accordance with the actual conditions in Tibet” (Bass, 1998). This
agreement became the basis of China’s rule in Tibet. More importantly,
in the Common Program of the Constitution of the Peoples’ Republic of
China promulgated in 1949, Article 50 recognized equality of all ethnic
groups. Similarly, Article 53 in particular states that every minority
group has the freedom to use and develop its language and to maintain
its customs and religion (Zhou, 2004). In 1984, the Act of Regional
Autonomy for Ethnic Minorities became effective in which Articles 9 and
10 gave ethnic minorities the right to use and develop their own
language and the freedom to believe in religion (Information Office of
the State Council, 2005). Likewise, to cater to the varying needs of a
large number of ethnic groups in China, Article 12 of the Chinese
Education law of 1995 also stipulates that the “schools and other
educational institutions primarily for ‘minority’ nationalities may use
the spoken or written language in common use among ethnic group or in
the locality as the language of instruction” (National People’s
Congress, 1995).</p>
<p>Tibet is the most backward region of China in terms of economic
development and level of educational attainment. In order to uplift the
state of education, the government adopted many so-called preferential
policies and spent a huge amount of money, especially after the 1980s.
These policies included <em>sanbao</em> or the ‘three guarantees policy’
of providing free food, clothing and lodging for children at school
starting from 1984; inland secondary classes and schools for Tibetan
primary graduates called <em>neidi xizang ban</em> policy in 1985;
bilingual education; ethnic minority teacher training, etc. There is no
denying the fact that Tibet experienced substantial economic and
educational development in the last few decades. But the growth and
development has seldom benefited the ethnic Tibetan people. Andrew M.
Fischer (2005) calls it ‘exclusionary growth’, which has resulted in
further alienation of the Tibetans in Tibet. Opportunities presented by
modernization in Tibet are being availed by millions of Chinese
migrants, and Tibetans find themselves increasingly left out from the
exploits.</p>
<p><strong>Current practices</strong></p>
<p><strong><em>Status of Tibetan language: </em></strong>Tibetan
language is the medium of communication of Tibetan culture, and thus,
assumes outmost significance in terms of cultural reproduction and
continuation of the ethnicity. However, despite constitutional
provisions, the teaching of the Tibetan language has been neglected in
varying degrees. During the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976), the
Tibetan language was categorized among the “Four Olds” and became a
target of attack and was simply “outlawed for several years” (Tournadre,
2003b). In 1980s, however, there was considerable cultural revival as
result of support from General Secretary of the Communist Party of China
Hu Yaobang and the Party Secretary Wu Jinhua. With the insistence of
Panchen Lama and Ngapo, two leading Tibetan cadres, plans were drawn to
make Tibetan the language of administration and education. However,
this trend was quickly reversed in mid-1990s following Tibetan uprisings
and Chinese pro-democracy movements in the late 1980s, and with the
breakup of the former Soviet Union. The Communist Party felt that its
power was directly under threat, and it heralded the return to hardline
policies. In Tibet, the Chinese government made deliberate attempts to
link Tibetan language and culture with ethnic nationalism. Thus,
Tibetan language and culture came under severe attack under the
leadership of hardliners such as TAR Party Secretary Chen Kuiyuan
(1992-2000). This resulted in a creation of an atmosphere where it has
made it difficult for Tibetans to assert their linguistic and cultural
rights as enshrined in the constitution. Tibetans live in perpetual
fear of being accused as ‘splittist’, the highest political crime, if
they advocate for Tibetan language education (Woeser, 2010).</p>
<p>However, it is difficult to generalize about a region as wide as
Tibet covering almost one-fourth of China. But in general, except in
the Qinghai Tibetan region, the Tibetan language medium is used only up
to the primary level. Almost all the secondary schools use Mandarin
Chinese as the medium of instruction and Tibetan language is either
dropped or retained as an elective subject. In Qinghai Tibetan regions,
some Tibetan secondary schools still use the Tibetan medium to a
varying degrees – some secondary schools teach Tibetan, history,
geography and math in Tibetan language, but teach physics, chemistry and
biology in Chinese medium. This generalization is only representative
and not exhaustive.</p>
<p><strong><em>Negative representation of Tibetan culture and religion: </em></strong>Tibetan
schools also follow the Chinese national curriculum developed in
far-away Beijing and thus, cultural exclusion is acutely felt in all
regions of Tibet. The treatment of the Tibetan culture and religion in
the school curriculum reflects the prevailing political mood of the
government. However, except for a short period from the early 1980s to
early 1990s, Tibetan culture and religion has been denigrated to varying
degrees. The civilizing mission of state education often described
ethnic minority culture as backward (Ch. <em>luolou</em>). The very conception of ‘minority education’ (Ch<em>. minzu jiaoyu) </em>as different from ‘regular education’ (Ch. <em>zhenggui jiaoyu</em>),
is based on the idea of fostering allegiance towards the state and
ensuring stability as the primary goal of education for minorities.
This means that minorities need to unlearn aspects of their culture that
the government describes as ‘unpatriotic’ and ‘elitist’ (Bass, 1998).
Hence, the Tibetan culture, language and religion often fall into these
categories. These attempts by the Chinese government correspond to what
Cruikshank (1999) called as the need to create and arm the ‘enemy’ so
as to engage in conflict and justify the system that is meant to
exercise social control and governance.</p>
<p><em> </em></p>
<p><strong><em>Ideological and patriotic education: </em></strong>Ideological
and patriotic education is an important component of the Chinese
state’s discourse on education for minorities, and is meant to
supplement the exclusion of Tibetan culture in the school curriculum.
As such, elements of patriotic education have made significant inroads
into the school curriculum. In the case of Tibet, patriotic education
assumes the role of legitimizing communist rule and negating pre-1950
Tibet. Ideological and political correctness became an important
yardstick for selection of students for educational opportunities. One
of the pre-conditions for getting the three guarantees of free food,
clothing and housing is “good ideological and moral character” (Zhiyong,
2008, p. 45). Likewise for the selection of Tibetan students for inland
secondary classes and schools, the fourth condition is maintenance of
“state ideology and morality” (Zhiyong, 2007, p. 76). Not surprisingly
then, school subjects like history and language carry strong
undercurrents of ideological messages. Even in seemingly apolitical
subjects like math, Dawa Norbu (1997) wrote that the Chinese teacher
would give a word problem example such as: “I have five eggs. I offer
three to the People’s Liberation Army. How many have I left?”</p>
<p>Moreover, under Chen Kuiyuan, patriotic education was started in
Tibetan schools in 1992 and later extended to the society at large. It
has involved raising the Chinese national flag, singing the Chinese
national anthem, and studying books and films approved by the
authorities (Tibetan Centre for Human Rights and Democracy, 2004). As a
part of the patriotic education campaign, Tibetan students had to
answer questions like these in the test: “How can Tibet become a
powerful and wealthy nation? And the options given were a) continuation
of the leadership of the Communist Party, b) Independence (Bass, 1998,
p. 58).” Failure to exhibit required patriotic and ideological brand
would mean punishment and even imprisonment (Bass, 2005). After the 2008
Tibetan uprisings, patriotic education was further stepped up in
schools and monasteries.</p>
<p><strong>Analysis of the discourses on education in Tibet</strong></p>
<p><strong><em>Discourse versus reality: </em></strong>In the government discourses such as the <em>White Paper</em>
(Information Office of the State Council, 2008), statistical data about
education in Tibet gave highly inflated figures such as a literacy rate
of 95% and an enrollment rate for school age children as 98.2%. But
the reality speaks quite a different story. According to Baden Nima
(2008), around 40-60% of Tibetan children do not attend school at all
and the literacy rate by the turn of the last century stood woefully low
at about 50%. In the Tibet Autonomous Region, less than 25% of Tibetan
children graduate to secondary school (Postiglione, 2004), and in rural
areas where 80% of Tibetans live, the primary schools at best provide
only three years of schooling (Bass, 2008). Therefore, scholars
generally tend to question the credibility of government data and treat
them as more of propaganda.</p>
<p>Perspectives from government discourse mainly attribute the low
school enrollment and high dropout rates in Tibet as result of the
backwardness and illiteracy of parents in rural and nomadic Tibet (Bass,
2005). This is deceptive, although it is quite understandable that in
rural and nomadic Tibet, illiterate parents might want to keep their
children at home for work. John U. Ogbu (1978) has postulated the
theory of ‘voluntary’ and ‘involuntary minority’. According to him,
‘voluntary minorities’ are those people who became minority as they
migrated out of choice, and hence they are more receptive to mainstream
culture. Whereas ‘involuntary minorities’ are indigenous people who have
become a minority in their own land due to the migration of other
groups., They tend to develop an‘oppositional identity’ in the face of
pressure from a dominant culture. The author’s theory could offer
another perspective to the low attendance, as many parents in Tibet have
not and still do not see any meaning in the state school education due
to its cultural irrelevance. Values transmitted by state schooling are
seen as alien or even anathema to the cultural values of the Tibetans
(Bangsbo, 2008). Zhu Zhiyong (2008, p. 49) conducted a survey in the
Nagchu district of Tibet and found that “the school in its current state
has a negative effect on the herdsmen’s families’ conception of
education”. The mere fact that many rural and nomadic families send
their children to India buttresses Ogbu’s theory. Due to a lack of
educational opportunities and cultural irrelevance of whatever is
available, many parents in Tibet had to seek an alternative source of
education for their children by taking the risk of sending them to
India. According to the Tibetan Refugee Reception Centre in Dharamsala,
of 43,634 Tibetans who fled Tibet and came to India between 1991 to
June 2004, 60% are below the age of 25 (cited in Tibetan Centre for
Human Rights and Democarcy, 2004). Tibetan Children’s Village schools
in India alone received around 14,000 Tibetan children from 1980 to 2010
(Yeshi, 2010). Lack of culturally relevant education and religious
freedom are the two primary reasons for this massive exodus of Tibetans
for the last four decades. It is also clearly evident that the Chinese
medium of instruction in the secondary schools has put ethnic minorities
at a great disadvantage, and adversely affects their educational
enrollment and attainment (Hong, 2010).</p>
<p><strong><em>Inland secondary schools for Tibetans: </em></strong>In
1985, Chinese government started the practice of sending a large number
of Tibetan primary school graduates to inland secondary schools (Ch. <em>neidi xizang ban policy)</em> in 19 provinces outside Tibetan regions under the banner of an ‘intellectual aid scheme’ (Ch. <em>zhili yuanzang</em>).
From 1985 to 2001, around 23,560 Tibetan primary school graduates
attended these inland schools (Postiglione et al., 2004). Around one
third of Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR) students who enter secondary
education attend these inland classes and schools (Bass, 2005), and one
can assume that they comprise a high percentage of Tibet’s top ranking
primary graduates (Postiglione, 2008). Government discourses dwell
heavily on the success of this policy and commend the benevolence of the
Central government and the inland provinces (Ministry of Foreign
Affairs, 2000: China Tibet Information Center, 2010). This practice was
later extended to Uyghur Muslims also. It is indeed quite spectacular
that the inland provinces would provide such educational aids to Tibetan
students. However, this policy must be seen in the light of what
Cruikshank (1999) called as “technologies of citizenship” that seeks to
constitute and regulate citizens, and entail power relations that are
both voluntary and coercive.</p>
<p>Tibet’s remoteness, lack of infrastructure, and difficulties in
getting qualified teachers are important factors in justifying inland
secondary schools for Tibetan, but a closer look at the kind of
education that Tibetan students are receiving in these dislocated
secondary classes and schools reveal well-intended attempts at
assimilation. For example, in a week, out of 34-43 periods they attend
depending upon their grade level, only 4-5 periods cover Tibetan
language and rest of the curriculum is identical to mainstream Chinese
schools (Zhu, 2007). These students are also subjected to ideological
and moral education classes. Similarly, by rule these students, aged
between 12-14 years at the time of selection, cannot return to Tibet
even during vacation until they complete four-years of junior secondary
school. By virtue of their isolation, they cannot attend any religious
activities or pray at monasteries (Postiglione et al., 2004). The
overall effect on identity formation is difficult to say, as in many
cases, dislocation often heightens ethnic consciousness. However, by the
time they return to Tibet after seven years of isolation, these
secondary graduates are generally bereft of their culture. Around half
of them become teachers (Postiglione, 2009), and thus perpetuate the
current state of education that gives primacy to the Mandarin Chinese
and Han culture.</p>
<p><strong><em>Linguistic and cultural education – Discourses and realities: </em></strong>The
Chinese government discourses on minority languages are ambiguous and
present a conflicting dichotomy between what is being written and what
is being done. The themes of protection and preservation of Tibetan
language are persistent in all major government publications on Tibetan
education (Aiming, 2004; Information Office of the State Council, 2000
& 2008). However, since the late 1990s the promotion of Mandarin
became an important national agenda and as a result, the Tibetan
language has become increasingly marginalized. Apart from the cultural
capital theory, another reason advanced in the government discourse on
language issue is the preeminence of economic determinism. As recent as
September 2010, Qinghai provincial secretary Qiang Wei (2010) spoke at a
conference of education and maintained that promotion of the common
speech (Mandarin Chinese) is important from an economic point of view.
But the economic primacy of Mandarin Chinese is due largely to the
political factor of denying political and socio-economic expanse for
minority languages to operate.</p>
<p>Another issue of disagreement is over the inclusion of minority
culture in the school education. The government publications and
discourses are also somewhat pretentious (Aiming, 2004; Information
Office of the State Council, 2008). These publications extol Tibet’s
‘splendid culture’ and ‘long history’, and discuss in length about
government’s effort to preserve and protect them. But on the practical
level many aspects of Tibetan culture are being denigrated as backward
and unpatriotic (Bass, 2005). As such cultural education for Tibetan is
substituted by ideological and patriotic education that endorses Han
Chinese culture. Tibetan Buddhism is neglected from the school
curriculum. References to Tibetan history mostly emphasize the alleged
benevolence that China has shown to Tibet throughout history and how
Tibet is an inalienable part of China. Even stories in the Tibetan
language textbooks are mostly translation of stories about communist
heroes and seldom reflect socio-cultural and environmental milieu of the
child (Bass, 2008). This has led to what Harrel (cited in Bass, 2005)
called ‘stigmatized identity’. Even the Han Chinese students are being
taught that Tibet is a backward and barbaric region. As a result,
according to the famous Chinese writer Wang Lixiong, many Han Chinese
possess negative attitudes towards Tibetans, and always look down upon
them from a position of superiority (as cited in Sarin & Sonam,
2009).</p>
<p>The Chinese government uses education as a powerful “technology of
citizenship” that legitimizes communist rule and produces loyal
citizens. However, the Government’s ‘benevolent’ attempts at
acculturating ‘backward’ minorities through education is itself a
relation of powers, as the government cannot speak in the voice of the
voiceless minorities without first constituting their inability to speak
for themselves (Cruikshank, 1999).</p>
<div id="attachment_765" class="wp-caption aligncenter" style="width:380px"><a href="http://www.merabsarpa.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/edu-tibet3.jpg"><img class="size-full wp-image-765 " src="http://www.merabsarpa.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/edu-tibet3.jpg" alt="" width="370" height="403"></a><p class="wp-caption-text">
"I am a child of China, I like to speak Mandarin". A school gate in Tibet. Courtesy: Woeser (2010)</p></div>
<p><strong><em>What led to the non-implementation of the constitutional provisions?: </em></strong>The
tremendous gap between educational rights and policies enshrined in the
constitutional legislation and the actual practice is perceptible to a
most casual observer. There is no doubt that the economic poverty and
geographical isolation and remoteness of Tibet is a major factor
hindering the realization of the constitutional provisions. Lack of
bilingual teachers is also another factor. However, the main reason is
lack of political will on the side of Chinese government to genuinely
pursue a culturally and linguistically relevant education in minority
areas including Tibet. The government’s interest is served by merely
including these provisions in the constitution as it helps the
government look modern and can lessen international criticisms on
fundamental theoretical level.</p>
<p>Minglang Zhou (2004) proffers three main reasons for this apparent
gap between China’s minority educational policy and practice. First,
most of the communist states always promise more than what they are
willing to deliver. Second, in Leninist-Stalinist theory the
accommodation of ethnic and linguistic diversity is only a means to
ultimate integration. Third, Han chauvinism always makes implementation
of minority constitutional rights difficult. Baden Nima (2008) and
Woeser (2010) also wrote that local Han cadres often belittle effort to
educate Tibetan in their own language. However, this has not done any
good to the national integration either. Events of 2008 and 2009 in
Tibet and Uyghur minority areas have sufficiently shown the growing
social gap between Han and minority groups.</p>
<p><strong>Conclusion</strong></p>
<p><strong><em>Genuine bilingual education rooted in minority culture: </em></strong>In <em>The Will to Empower</em>,
Cruikshank (1999) questions and analyzes power relationships and
asserts that in spite of the emancipatory claim of those who seek to
empower others, the relations of empowerment are themselves relations of
power. This seems to be case with China’s attempts to empower its
minorities, although here the government’s intention is dubious. In
Chinese government discourse, education to the minorities in Mandarin
and Han Chinese culture represents an attempt to empower the minorities
and bring economic and educational development to ethnic minority
regions. Yet, from the minorities’ perspective, it has clear
disempowering effects, as the educational displacement causes low school
enrollment and erosion of their language and culture.</p>
<p>One of the central issues in the discourse on minority education is
national unity and stability. In the case of Tibet, the government
establishes a link between Tibetan Buddhism and language with local
ethnic nationalism. Thus, deliberate attempts were made to exclude
Tibetan culture, including religion and language from education.
However, government efforts have not diminished ethnic nationalism, but
rather increased alienation and created sense of exclusion. It is quite
evident from the Tibetan and Uyghur experiences that the cultural
exclusion, ideological education and mainstreaming seldom results in
national integration. On the contrary, it has led to protests and unrest
that threaten national unity. Uprisings in Tibet and Uyghur area in
2008 and 2009 respectively, and Tibetan students’ protests in 2010 are
cases in point. A more culturally oriented education could in fact
bring the minorities closer to the Chinese nation and promote unity in
diversity. Beijing must recognize that the child’s community and local
milieu form the primary social context in which learning takes place,
and in which knowledge acquires its meaning.</p>
<p>Thus, a genuine bilingual education rooted in minority culture could
be the true panacea for China’s minority educational problem. In the
case of Tibet, Tibetan language should be promoted as the first
language. Along with that, it is important to create economic and
political expanse for Tibetan language to gain functional utility. This
entails making Tibetan language the language of administration and
commerce. Without the prospect of political and socio-economic gains and
opportunities, even the choice for an education in Tibetan language
would be a ‘false choice’ (Zhou & Ross, 2004). The current version
of bilingual education can at best be described as ‘subtractive
bilingualism’ (Fillmore, 1991) when learning a second language means
losing the first. At the same time, there is ample evidence to show
that the ethnic minorities fully recognize the importance of learning
Mandarin Chinese (Anaytulla, 2008, Nima, 2008, Ojijed, 2010). Julkunen
(2001) explained three main motivations for learning a second language,
namely integrative, instrumental, and cognitive. Minorities in China
possessed strong instrumental motivation for learning Mandarin Chinese
such as prospects for getting good job, educational opportunities and so
on. Thus even in a system of a bilingual education rooted primarily in
minority language, the Mandarin Chinese will naturally gain a high
place, almost at par with the first language due to economic and
demographic reasons. So, the fears of minority groups not being
conversant in Mandarin Chinese can be kept at bay. Consequently, a
bilingual education rooted in minority language and more culturally
relevant education seems the best option for both Beijing and its ethnic
minorities.</p>
<p>Therefore, adequate protection and promotion of Tibetan language and
culture through education is crucial to enhancing educational
achievements of Tibetan students, reducing the current level of
unemployment, promoting social development, and achieving national unity
and stability. It would be pertinent to sum up this paper in the words
of eminent linguist Nicolas Tournadre who wrote that the “Tibetan is one
of the four oldest and greatest in volume and most original literatures
of Asia, along with Sanskrit, Chinese, and Japanese literatures. So,
that is a very good reason for the heritage of humanity to keep this
culture” (2003a, p. 2). Even in the most democratic and
well-intentioned will to empower others, in this case through education
for minorities, Cruikshank (1999) calls to our attention that there is
the possibility of both freedom and domination.</p>
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