<div dir="ltr"><br> <strong>Subject:</strong> Unequal Englishes<br> <a><img src="http://linguistlist.org/images/mail-logo-9.gif" align="absbottom" border="0">E-mail this message to a friend</a><br><br> <a href="http://linguistlist.org/pubs/reviews/get-review.cfm?subid=36133097"><img src="http://linguistlist.org/images/discussion-image.gif" align="absbottom" border="0">Discuss this message</a><br><br> <br> Book announced at <a href="http://linguistlist.org/issues/26/26-3468.html" target="_blank">http://linguistlist.org/issues/26/26-3468.html</a><br>
<br> AUTHOR: Ruanni Tupas<br> TITLE: Unequal Englishes<br> SUBTITLE: The Politics of Englishes Today<br> PUBLISHER: Palgrave Macmillan<br> YEAR: 2015<br> <br> REVIEWER: Paula Prescod, University of Picardie - Jules Verne<br> <br> Reviews Editor: Helen Aristar-Dry <br> <br>SUMMARY <br> <br>“Unequal
Englishes” edited by Ruanni Tupas, is a 267-page volume bringing
together 13 chapters, 2 of which are co-authored. It is divided into 4
parts of 3 or 4 chapters each. There is a list of figures and tables, a
forward by Arjuna Pararama, acknowledgments, notes on the contributors,
and a 3-page index. <br> <br>The introduction written by Ruanni Tupas
and Rani Rubdy sets the tone for the volume. In their examination of the
notion of inequality, the authors claim that the attitudes we entertain
about the use of English are inherited from a long tradition of
thinking that only ‘Inner Circle’ speakers can claim English as their
own, and that other users of English are illegitimate, having corrupted
the language. According to the authors, attempts to counter these
deep-seated beliefs have resulted in reinforcing the supremacy of
native-speaker Englishes, and in the marginalizing of varieties that
dare usurp the label “English” to refer to a language which arose out of
the contact between peoples and cultures through colonialism and
globalisation. <br> <br>Tupas and Rubdy revisit the question of whether
‘Inner Circle’ users or ‘native speakers’ own English. While we have
come to accept the plurality of English, it is our trust in notions like
functional linguistic equality (Hymes 1985:v) and language diversity
that has shaped the hegemony of English (p. 2). Thus hegemony, entwined
with political factors, has rendered the legitimacies of Englishes
uneven. The authors acknowledge the role played by scholars like Kachru,
McArthur, and Bhatt, who have underscored the necessity to reckon with
local Englishes. Nonetheless, neither the notion of World Englishes nor
the concentric model approach captures the social and linguistic
pluricentricity of English. Instead, such ideologies as ‘native
speaker’, ‘standard English’ and ‘nation state’ have gone unchallenged.
Consequently, it is difficult to supplant these concepts despite the
attempts made by scholars like Kachru to foster the use of more
democratic notions. <br> <br>The chapters in Part 1 take a theoretical
approach to linguistic inequality. Chapter 1, written by Ryubo Kubota,
proposes a critical examination of approaches that underscore the
pluricentricity of English. The author draws on critiques of liberal and
neoliberal multiculturalism and outlines the paradox of the heightened
interest in research on the diversity of English inasmuch as it is
linked to ideologies that claim to foster diversity but which reinforce
the notion of World English. Although they recognise homogeneity,
pluralist approaches are purely essentialist because they disregard
power relations among racialised groups. Consequently, they are
comparable with liberal and neoliberal approaches to multicultural
education. Liberal multiculturalism in education recognises the need to
respect diversity but the approach often results in an awareness for
diversity which is not coupled with a critical appraisal of the
hierarchical relations that accompany diversity. Besides, instead of
promoting diversity and openness, neoliberal multiculturalism blurs
relations of power among ethnicities. According to the authors, concepts
like World Englishes, English as a Lingua Franca, and postcolonial
performativity do not account for power imbalances but instead leave
unchallenged the ideology of normativism. <br> <br>Rani Rubdy’s
contribution explores whether language equality is not utopian since
language use is inextricably linked to human capital. Given the roles
English has played in colonisation and globalisation, the author wonders
whether English is not itself the root-cause of inequalities. (p. 43).
Politico-historical, economic and ideological factors explain why we
rely heavily on ‘Inner Circle’ ‘native speaker’ norms, why we fail to
recognise language-internal variation, and why we continue to
hierarchise Englishes based on speakers’ ethnicities. In addition, the
rise of a variety to standard status is associated with the way the
elite users of the variety endow it with power and prestige. The call is
therefore made to rethink standard English by debunking established
myths about it, to problematise monolingual, normative approaches, and
to relocate centre-based perspectives on teaching English particularly
in TESOL. The author invokes Kumaravadivelu’s (2003) differentiation
between decolonisation and nativisation and the need to operate a shift
from nativisation to decolonisation to expunge English imperialism (p
50). Professionals in TESOL would nonetheless need to strip the
discipline of ‘native-speakerism’, to use their own experiences to
assert their identity, status, and employability (p. 51). While the
author does not deny the importance of standards, she calls for the use
of more democratic and equitable terms to qualify language varieties. <br> <br>Chapter
3 is written by Joseph Sung-Yul Park. The author hypothesises that
subjectivity, involving personal and mundane feelings of affect, emotion
and sentiment regarding English, occupies a substantial part in
learning the language in South Korea. Besides influencing learning
outcomes, it also reproduces and sustains inequalities of English.
Building on Raymond Williams’ (1977) ‘structures of feelings’ – of how
the English frenzy ‘yeongeo yeolpung’ concerns not only the importance
of having a high proficiency in English as an index human capital (p.
62) but also the valorisation of white native-speaker Englishes,
considered to be the only legitimate models Korean learners should
emulate – the author stresses that the consequence of such mind sets is
unequal Englishes, whereby the English spoken in South Korea becomes
stigmatised, delegitimised as ‘Konglish’. The ensuing sentiment of
linguistic insecurity manifests itself bodily via palpitations and
perspiration, psychologically via a panoply of structures of feelings
including anxiety and embarrassment, socially via resorting to
metalinguistic talk about the experience of learning and practising
English, and ultimately it has economic consequences since Koreans see
themselves as being forced to invest huge sums of money to learn
mainstream American English. According to the author, reflexive
engagement with the dimensions of subjectivity Koreans manifest in
relation to English should foster the development of a critical
metalinguistic awareness of these feelings, in order to help transform
inequalities of English. <br> <br>In Chapter 4, Peter Ives examines
whether inequalities lie between languages themselves or in the
relations among language users. The author confutes the argument that
the ground of linguistic power is occupied by language users, contending
instead, contra scholars like Pennycook and Canagarajah, that
languages, rather than their users, are unequal. The author’s approach
diverges from those of Wee and Pupavac to the extent that they conclude
that the pair equality / inequality applies not to languages but to
their users, and that they insist that approaches like those of
Phillipson and Skutnabb-Kangas, which advocate language rights,
ultimately infringe on the speech rights of majorities. Yves considers
this tangent as an obstruction to the civil and political rights deemed
necessary for creativity and originality in language. The author looks
to analyses of language politics and the works of scholars like
Kymlicka, and particularly May, who purports that it is linguistic
democracy rather than equality that initiates political change regarding
minorities. He maintains that the charge of inequality cannot be
levelled at language users but that it must be extended to language
varieties. <br> <br>Part 2 comprises three chapters which examine how
inequalities in English proficiency and practice arise from deep-seated
socio-cultural, socio-political and socio-economic factors. In Chapter
5, Eric S. Henry studies the effects of self-effacing comments and
negative language evaluations on the proficiency of Chinese speakers of
English. The author explains the development of metapragmatic discourse,
and shows how such talk about talk is often enrobed in joking
narratives. According to Henry, the increased importance of English for
young Chinese is a breeding ground for the dissemination and maintenance
of joking narratives which feed negative social evaluation.
Consequently, they engender and strengthen relations of linguistic
inequality. The author relates how one English instructor chooses to
relate jokes about Xiaoming, a random Chinese speaker of English in the
USA, who miscues English expressions and ends up in humiliating
situations. Such narratives which portray Xiaoming’s use of English as
pathological send a message to the students: the only way to spare
themselves the embarrassing situations Xiaoming experiences is to target
‘Standard English’ and to avoid Chinglish, portrayed as a devalued,
ridiculed, backward and stigmatised variety that does not have its place
beyond China’s borders. <br> <br>Glenn Toh’s contribution focusses on
the discomfort felt by Japanese speakers of English for reasons stemming
from Japan’s ‘Right leaning politics’ and its socioeconomic and
cultural history. The author shows that ridding the nation of the
ideological inequalities that are entwined with English is a difficult
task. For one thing, the subjectivities and post-war racialist attitudes
towards foreigners are still present. Moreover, native speakers of
American English are also revered, and the mere thought of a Japanese
variety of English is inconceivable. Nonetheless, motivated by
Pennycook’s alternative epistemologies, the author suggests that a local
form of English is the outcome of localised activities and local
practices, and that it is refashioned in Japanese art. English in Japan
animates, resonates, and enlivens local meanings and performative
practices. Nonetheless, the Japanese remain undecided about the space
English should occupy and caution about turning to English to the
detriment of national unity and integrity. The nationalist ideologies
that surfaced during the post-war period and the US-led occupation of
Japan fostered the rejection of non Japaneseness, Paradoxically, they
view English as a threat to Japaneseness. Yet, they tend to have a
sacrosanct view of a dominant monolithic English which bars any
inclination toward the plurality of English. In line with the paradox,
Japanese youth are encouraged to aim for native level ability in English
but are cautioned to contain their attachment to English for fear of
losing their Japanese identity. <br> <br>In her contribution, Aileen O.
Salonga examines the performance of gayness as it relates to English
performance in call centres in the Philippines. Although it would appear
that homosexual men are preferred recruitees given their willingness to
index traits associated with empathy, politeness, and cooperation, in
actual fact, these qualities are not enough to get even homosexual males
past the recruitment process. What is interesting in this industry is
that the linguistic control exercised by managers at the interview stage
serves to heighten the possibility for linguistic agency, according to
the author. Even more interesting is that one finds men who are willing
to engage in a speech style that is culturally indexed as feminine. The
crux of the matter is that socioeconomic aspects must be factored into
the analysis because the Filipinos who are able to imitate the desired
accent and to perform femininity in performing their duties have
graduated from the prestigious schools, have access to native speaker
accents, via cable TV, and are able to procure for themselves printed
learning resources. It is in this sense that English functions as a
gatekeeper. Needless to say, the realities in the call centre industry
are a reflection of wider societal inequalities where only those who are
endowed with the linguistic capital afforded by economic conditions can
have access to valuable assets. <br> <br>Part 3 addresses the functions
English plays in multilingual spaces which are being forced to
transform under the pressure of globalisation. Christina Higgins’
contribution portrays Hawai’i as typically reflecting diglossia, à la
Fergusson, where non-official and vernacular languages are often
associated with informal, low prestige status and private spheres,
alongside official languages that occupy public spheres. In Hawai’i,
coexisting with English and Hawaiian is Hawaiian Pidgin, a language that
is erroneously considered an inferior variety of English. The
inequality it endured was sustained by a race-based stratification
system, and institutions like English Standard Schools that enrolled
only speakers of non-pidgin influenced English. Today, Hawaiian Pidgin
is a marker of local identity and solidarity, and it occupies public
spaces, being used in socio-political arenas, advertisements and signage
on administrative sites. There has also been a shift from covert to
overt prestige. Moreover, the language has moved from having the status
of a mere lingua franca to one that has a more positive status,
associated with local-style and pride. According to the author, Hawaiian
Pidgin has been instrumentalised to construct authenticity ‘that is
tied to politicized concerns about the local ecology’ (p. 149). As can
be seen from the commodity-oriented documents in Higgins’ corpus,
Hawaiian Pidgin is commodified in advertisements targeting local
consumers. It therefore occupies an essential space in the local
symbolic economy, authenticating local identity, with very little regard
for, if not in complete defiance of, the pressures that tend to force
globalisation and cosmopolitanism onto states. <br> <br>Chapter 9,
written by Lin Pan, also deals with linguistic signage. Using as her
research context the globalisation and modernisation plans carried out
in Beijing to prepare it for the 2008 Olympic Games, the author claims
that different forms of English used in commercial signs in Dashilan are
the result of an ‘unequal process of glocalization’ (p. 163). The
inequality is palpable as much in forms of English as in the way these
forms are displaced. According to Pan, Dashilan is a good example of the
hybridisation that results from globalisation, since the use of English
is best analysed as having been delocated and relocated in a new
ecology, taking on new forms, functions and values and affecting the
forms, functions and values of local languages. The use of English forms
displayed in the signs advertised by the 4 shops investigated in
Dashilan falls in line with the local development plans that seek to
showcase a modernised district. For Pan, incorporating into signs
features reminiscent of English serves to daze and elude foreign
tourists who know English better than they do Chinese, given that the
English used is generally not what they may be familiar with. In this
sense, English has brought social inequality to the locality. <br> <br>In
Chapter 10, Catherine Chua Siew Kheng underscores Singapore’s
sociolinguistic and ethnic diversity where English, Chinese, Malay, and
Tamil are the official languages. In recognition of the Singapore’s
multicultural fabric, and to foster bilingualism, schools have
instituted the English+1 policy, whereby they offer English as a first
language, and a second language which is generally a ‘mother tongue’.
The policy has however paved the way for a number of ideological frames
that compartmentalise races and cultures. It also shows a stark
preference for English since all save ‘mother tongue’ examinations are
conducted in English. Besides, children are exposed solely to English at
pre-school. Access to English is also unequal at home due to the
presence of Singlish and heritage languages used by maids and
grand-parents to socialise children. To iron out these imbalances,
families invest in extra private tuition in English. Paradoxically,
despite reflecting the state’s multiracial, multicultural and
multilingual realities and thus Singaporean identity, Singlish is the
subject of hostile attacks by the authorities who argue that it impedes
the ability to learn standard English. The author observes that
globalisation, changing trends in migration, and intermarriages would
require Singaporean residents to learn not only English, but also
Singlish. Yet, this parameter is neglected in the education policy. <br> <br>The
chapters in the final part explore the notion of inequalities of
English as it pertains to TESOL and to teacher training, teaching
resources and pedagogical practices in general. In Chapter 11, Vaidehi
Ramanathan adopts a postcolonial perspective to explore the degree of
English vernacularisation in postcolonial contexts despite efforts, on
the part of the authorities, to separate English from local languages,
and ultimately the effectiveness of vernacular pedagogical practices in
learning and teaching English. The Raj’s divide and rule policy, devised
by the colonial government to treat Indians differently – and to keep
locals in subservient positions – is based on government classification
of individuals along the dichotomies Christian / Heathen and English /
Foreign, and subsequently depends on ethnicities, skin complexion,
language and religion. The idea of linguistic apartheid is applicable
here. In deciding that a small number of Indians would be given access
to English to help the British in their governance, the colonial
government endowed these Indians with ‘symbolic power’ and ‘cultural
capital’ over those who were educated in the vernacular. The article
addresses the implications for the teaching and practice of English in
Gujarati-medium settings and for TESOL teaching worldwide. It is shown
that teachers of English actively partake in the vernacularisation of
English by drawing on vernacular resources to make western concepts and
forms of language more accessible to learners of English, thus
contesting the divide and rule policy, and breaking down the
inequalities. <br> <br>In Chapter 12, Phan Le Ha focusses on the
consequences of internationalising English education at the tertiary
level, and the implications for offering international interaction in
English-medium programmes. She then measures these against the
perceptions and expectations of students who travel abroad to attend
English-medium universities. The study reveals that Asian students
attending an Australian university in Malaysia expect to be ideally
prepared for communicating with native speakers of English, whom they
regard as the legitimate guardians of the linguistic norms and cultural
values of ‘Inner Circle’ English-speaking countries. These perceptions
of native speakers as arbiters bring to the fore the ideologies and
myths about native speaker superiority and legitimacy, and confirm the
unequal statuses of English speakers. The study shows that, because they
pay huge sums of money for tuition, the students expect to interact
mostly, if not exclusively, with English native speaker teachers and
classmates, in addition to having tuition in English provided solely by
native speakers. However, while they would embrace these opportunities,
the students would rather choose which western values, practices and
modes of critical thinking they should be exposed to, to ensure that
they remain within their comfort zone. By holding on to these imaginary
constructs, the students deny themselves what could turn out to be
enriching intercultural experiences. <br> <br>In the final chapter, Ian
Martin and Brian Morgan present the evolution and structure of the
programme dubbed the Diploma of Teaching English as an International
Language at the Glendon College in Canada. During this undergraduate
programme, which aims to train prospective English teachers, candidates
are required to do a 3-week international practicum at the E. A. Varona
Higher Pedagogical University in Cuba. On arrival in Havana, the
Canada-based students are required to carry out observations in
English-learning classrooms under the supervision of Cuban English
teachers who serve as their mentors. According to the authors, the
structure and content of the BA Honours programme allow the students to
develop a critical perspective and to debunk such entrenched constructs
as native speaker superiority and mother tongue prestige. This augurs
well for repositioning Englishes and accents of Englishes not in terms
of which is better and more prestigious but in terms of the ‘personal
preferences’ of those who are brought to practise them. <br> <br>EVALUATION <br> <br>The
volume engages its readers to consider and weigh the challenges faced
by a wide range of users of English in their everyday lives, in their
workplaces, education or social lives. The countries serving as the
background for study – where English is an official language – are all
‘de jure’ multilingual states (Hawai’i, India, the Philippines,
Singapore, Malaysia). In the case of the other studies, English is not
typically a medium of instruction (South Korea, Cuba, Japan, China).
This quick overview reveals that the major focus is on Asian countries.
The chapter focussing on Cuba stands out as a loner. One cannot help but
wonder if this penchant for Asia was an editorial imperative. While the
studies cover a diverse array of subtopics, the lack of contextual
diversity is unfortunate. For instance, studies on English-speaking
Africa and the Caribbean are conspicuously absent. Disappointing too is
the failure to appreciate Schneider’s (2007) dynamic model in the
theoretical approaches to unequal Englishes, inasmuch as Schneider’s
volume deals extensively with the sociolinguistic outcomes emerging from
the transplantation of languages during the colonial epochs, and
involves some of the very same spaces investigated here. <br> <br>The
editors have succeeded in making the volume cohesive and well-balanced,
having aptly divided the contributions into 4 subthemes that
interconnect subtly with the title of the volume. Only on rare occasions
does one lose track of the central theme to the point of questioning
whether we are in fact dealing with the hierarchisation of Englishes or
inequalities with respect to individuals’ access to English (Chapters 8
& 11). That being said, even those chapters give a good sense of how
vernaculars play out alongside English. <br> <br>Although notions like
standard and native-speaker English continue to flourish, one cannot
help but agree with the idea that these are myths (Lippi-Green 1997:
44), abstract, artificial, and “impersonal and anonymous like the
official uses [they have] to serve” (Bourdieu 1991: 48). Overall, the
chapters entreat the readership to adopt a more balanced appreciation of
language varieties, be they English-influenced or in contact with
English, and to work towards deconstructing these hard-and-fast
ideologies. “Unequal Englishes” joins the already rich array of
literature on the politics of Englishes in postcolonial settings to
provide valuable research data for teachers of English in multicultural
spaces, but also for TESOL professionals and students, and for those
interested in postcolonial studies. <br> <br>REFERENCES <br> <br>Bourdieu, Pierre. 1991. Language and symbolic power, trs. Gino Raymond and Matthew Adamson. MA: Harvard University Press. <br> <br>Lippi-Green,
Rosina. 1997. English with an accent. Language, ideology, and
discrimination in the United States. London & NY: Routledge. <br> <br>Schneider, Edgar. 2007. Postcolonial English: Varieties around the world. Cambridge: CUP.<br><br> <br> ABOUT THE REVIEWER<br> <br>
Paula Prescod, previously an ESL and EFL teacher in the Caribbean and
in France, moved on to the positions of Part-time lecturer in English
linguistics at the Universität Bielefeld and Associate Professor of
French pedagogy and linguistics at the Université de Picardie Jules
Verne. Her research interests are the linguistic description and
sociolinguistic phenomena of Caribbean English-based creoles, and
Applied linguistics. Her most recent publication is ''Language issues in
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines'' (ed., VEAW, John Benjamins, 2015).<br clear="all"><br>-- <br><div class="gmail_signature" data-smartmail="gmail_signature">**************************************<br>N.b.: Listing on the lgpolicy-list is merely intended as a service to its members<br>and implies neither approval, confirmation nor agreement by the owner or sponsor of the list as to the veracity of a message's contents. Members who disagree with a message are encouraged to post a rebuttal, and to write directly to the original sender of any offensive message. A copy of this may be forwarded to this list as well. (H. Schiffman, Moderator)<br><br>For more information about the lgpolicy-list, go to <a href="https://groups.sas.upenn.edu/mailman/" target="_blank">https://groups.sas.upenn.edu/mailman/</a><br>listinfo/lgpolicy-list<br>*******************************************</div>
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