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Bilingual Education Policy and Neoliberal Content and Language Integrated Learning Practices
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Ana María Relaño-Pastor
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<a href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898">
The Oxford Handbook of Language Policy and Planning
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Edited by James W. Tollefson and Miguel Pérez-Milans
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<h2 class="gmail-moduleToggle gmail-moduleLabel">In This Article</h2>
<ul class="gmail-toc"><span class="gmail-smallCaps"></span><li class="gmail-sections"><a href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-div1-141">CLIL Research in Europe</a></li><li class="gmail-sections"><a href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-div1-142">CLIL as Neoliberal Language Policy and Practice</a></li><li class="gmail-sections"><a href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-div1-143">Bilingual Craze and Pressure in Castilla–La Mancha Schools</a><ul><li class="gmail-div2"><a href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-div2-91">“Bilingualism Is On-Trend”: Commodification and Social Hierarchization in Castilla–La Mancha Bilingual Schools</a></li></ul></li><li class="gmail-sections"><a href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-div1-144">Future Directions</a></li><li><a href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-section-86">Appendix Transcription Conventions</a></li><li class="gmail-bibliography"><a href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibliography-25">References
</a></li><li class="gmail-notes"><a href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#notes">Notes</a></li></ul>
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<div id="gmail-contentRoot"><div id="gmail-abstractAndKeywords"><h2 class="gmail-abstractMinus">Abstract and Keywords</h2><div class="gmail-abstract"><p>This
chapter presents an overview of Content and Language Integrated
Learning (CLIL) policy and practice in Europe to shed light on the
neoliberalization and commodification processes involved in the global
spread of English. The first part surveys the key issues of CLIL
research in Europe by offering a summary of the major trends in policy
and practice. The second section advocates for approaching CLIL as
policy and practice from an ethnographic, political economy perspective
to understand the complex relationships between bilingual language
policy, stakeholders’ circulating discourses about bilingualism, and
bilingual classroom practices. The third section briefly illustrates the
case of bilingual programs in the central-south autonomous community of
Castilla–La Mancha, Spain, attending to the social hierarchization
processes involved in the implementation of CLIL programs in this
region. The chapter’s final section advocates for the need to
incorporate the ethnographic turn in future research on CLIL in Europe
and beyond.</p></div><p class="gmail-keywords">
Keywords: <a href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/search?f_0=keyword&q_0=CLIL">CLIL</a>, <a href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/search?f_0=keyword&q_0=bilingual education">bilingual education</a>, <a href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/search?f_0=keyword&q_0=neoliberalism">neoliberalism</a>, <a href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/search?f_0=keyword&q_0=ethnography">ethnography</a>, <a href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/search?f_0=keyword&q_0=language policy">language policy</a></p></div>
<div id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-div1-140" class="gmail-div1">
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2540"><span class="gmail-sc">Bilingual</span>
education policy (BEP) as a type of language-in-education policy is
defined in this chapter as involving education in two or more languages
or linguistic varieties (<a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1462" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1462">Cenoz, 2012</a>; <a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1458" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1458">García, 2009</a>).
In her comprehensive overview of the challenges posed by bilingual
education in the twenty-first century, García claims that bilingual
education is “good for all education, and therefore good for all
children, as well as good for all adult learners” (p. 11). This
beneficial perspective, however reasonable it sounds, is far from being
undisputed, especially within critical approaches to language policy
under the influence of neoliberalism. As <a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1515" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1515">Tollefson (2013)</a>
argues, language-in-education policies in the twenty-first century
should be critically examined, particularly the elite’s interests in
promoting BEP at the local, regional, national, or global levels.</p>
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2541"><a name="p506" class="gmail-pageNumber"><span id="gmail-pageid_506" class="gmail-pageNumber">
(p. 506)
</span></a>Critical analysis should focus on the resulting social
inequality and marginalization of students, whose interactionally
achieved acts of opposition toward controversial BEPs, such as the
implementation of Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL)
programs in Europe, is worth researching ethnographically (<a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1504" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1504">Relaño-Pastor, 2015</a>). Similarly, <a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1461" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1461">Busch (2011)</a>
agrees that we should critically address the political context in which
the implementation of innovative educational practices takes place.
These practices are shaped by “sometimes complementary, sometimes
contradictory discourses and policies” (p. 544), particularly in the
European context, where most education systems are heavily influenced by
“monolingual and monoglossic ideologies” (<a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1461" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1461">Busch, 2011</a>, p. 545), which regard students’ languages and language varieties as separate, bounded, and whole linguistic systems.</p>
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2542">Language ideologies are
deeply ingrained in language policies—more specifically, in
language-in-education policies undertaken to deal with linguistic and
cultural diversity—as well as in the teaching and learning of second and
foreign languages. For <a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1467" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1467">Crawford (2004)</a>,
language ideologies constitute the foundations of “folk linguistics”
(p. 62) acquired from friends, relatives, media, community leaders, or
schoolteachers, and popularized through reinforcement by society’s
dominant institutions. The field of language ideologies (LI) has
consolidated over the last two decades (see the seminal work of <a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1511" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1511">Schieffelin, Woolard, & Kroskrity, 1998</a>, for a comprehensive account of the field at that time). For example, <a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1460" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1460">Blommaert (2006)</a>
defines language ideologies as “socially and culturally embedded
metalinguistic conceptualizations of language and its form” (p. 241). In
addition, Kroskrity (<a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1484" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1484">2000</a>, <a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1485" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1485">2004</a>)
insists on the ubiquity of language ideologies in society, not
necessarily coming from the ruling class, but including also, whether
implicitly or explicitly, speakers’ assessment of the role of language
and communicative practices in society.</p>
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2543"><a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1485" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1485">Kroskrity (2004)</a>
analyzes how language ideologies relate to language policies. In his
view, investigating the relationship between ideology and policy
requires attention to several issues, including the following: the
perception of language and discourse among different cultural groups;
the range of language ideologies according to different social divisions
based on class, gender, elite status, or generation; opposition to and
contestation of dominant language ideologies; individuals’ awareness of
local language ideologies; how language ideologies mediate between
social structures and forms of talk; and the role of language ideologies
in policymakers’ decisions regarding which languages are used in the
making of national identities and which are considered marginal in the
nation-state (pp. 501–509).</p>
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2544">In general, language policy
decisions are usually less about language and more about underlying
social and political conflicts. Whether at school, the workplace, home,
or community spaces, language policies influence what languages or
linguistic varieties we speak, judgments about linguistic
appropriateness (<i>good/acceptable</i> or <i>bad/unacceptable</i>), and the values individuals attach to languages. <a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1513" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1513">Spolsky (2004)</a>
distinguishes three components of the language policy of a speech
community: “its language practices; its language beliefs or ideology;
and any specific efforts <a name="p507" class="gmail-pageNumber"><span id="gmail-pageid_507" class="gmail-pageNumber">
(p. 507)
</span></a>to modify or influence that practice by any kind of language intervention, planning or management” (p. 5). In addition, <a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1512" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1512">Shohamy (2006)</a>
believes that language policy serves as a “device to perpetuate and
impose language behaviors in accordance with the national, political,
social and economic agendas” (p. 3), so a critical view of language
policy should analyze the mechanisms or “policy devices” embedded in
language policy to understand the “battle between ideology and practice”
(p. 45).</p>
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2545"><a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1476" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1476">García (2009)</a>
offers one of the most comprehensive frameworks to understand BEP in
relation to six characteristics: language ideologies (monoglossic or
heteroglossic); linguistic goals (types of bilingualism, whether
additive, subtractive, recursive, or dynamic); linguistic ecology
(related to language shift, language maintenance, language
revitalization, or plurilingualism); orientations toward bilingualism
(bilingualism as a problem, a privilege, a right, or a resource);
cultural ecology (how mono/biculturalisms are conceptualized); and the
types of children involved (linguistic minorities and students situated
at different points of the bilingual continuum) (pp. 120–122). Among the
different types of BEP, García pays close attention to CLIL programs,
which are characterized as “heteroglossic, fostering dynamic
bilingualism, using languages as resources, providing students with a
transcultural ecology, and serving children at different points of the
bilingual continuum” (p. 134).</p>
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2546">In Europe, CLIL-type
bilingual education has been positively described and highly praised by
the European Commission and the Council of Europe as an initiative that
promotes “plurilingualism, linguistic diversity, mutual understanding,
democratic citizenship and social cohesion” (<a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1466" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1466">Council of Europe, 2014</a>)
in order to meet the mother tongue plus two languages (MT + 2) mandate,
according to which “every European citizen should master two other
languages in addition to their mother tongue” (<a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1473" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1473">European Commission, 2012</a>).
Because of CLIL’s importance in European bilingual education, this
chapter will survey the latest research on CLIL in Europe as a type of
bilingual education policy aimed at enhancing English-language education
while successfully meeting the demands of the Council of Europe and the
European Commission.</p>
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2547">This survey of CLIL adopts a political economy perspective (<a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1507" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1507">Ricento, 2015</a>)
toward language policy, which relies on “a range of subject matters,
including history, sociology, economics, politics, education, and
linguistics in order to assess and explain real-world phenomena that do
not fit neatly into boxes labeled ‘economic,’ ‘social,’ ‘political’ or
‘cultural’ ” (<a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1507" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1507">Ricento, 2015</a>,
p. 2). Indeed, Ricento insists on the need to reinterpret, with a
critical, political economic approach, the three main assessments of
English as a global language, namely, “(1) a form of linguistic
imperialism, (2) a vehicle for social and economic mobility, (3) a
global lingua franca” (p. 3). The perspective of language policy as
political economy goes hand in hand with critical interpretive
approaches to language policy (<a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1488" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1488">Martin-Jones, 2007</a>; Tollefson, <a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1514" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1514">2006</a>, <a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1515" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1515">2013</a>),
which in the case of CLIL as a type of bilingual education means “to
link insights from the close study of the interactional and textual fine
grain of everyday <a name="p508" class="gmail-pageNumber"><span id="gmail-pageid_508" class="gmail-pageNumber">
(p. 508)
</span></a>life in educational settings with an account of
specific institutional regimes, the wider political economy and the
global processes of cultural transformation at work in contemporary
society” (<a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1488" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1488">Martin-Jones, 2007</a>, p. 163). This perspective contributes to what <a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1461" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1461">Busch (2011)</a>
calls “the second shift in research on language(s) in education in
Europe,” from the 1990s onward, which redefines linguistic diversity in
relation to “transmigration, global mobility and the multidirectionality
of communication flows” (p. 544). This shift in the conceptualization
of language in European language policy research, far from considering
language and linguistic varieties as “irregularities in a normally
monolingual pattern,” should instead account for their “heteroglossic
disturbance,” considered “an intrinsic and constitutive element of what
is perceived as normality” (p. 545). Thus, following <a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1499" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1499">Pérez-Milans (2015)</a>,
this chapter re-examines how CLIL, in promoting economic
competitiveness, intercultural dialogue, social cohesion, and democratic
citizenship, is deeply ingrained in neoliberalization and
commodification processes.</p>
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2548">The organization of this
chapter is threefold. The following part surveys research on CLIL in
Europe as the preferred model of bi/multilingual education by offering a
summary of the major trends in policy and practice. The next section
advocates for an ethnographic, political economy perspective to
understand the complex relationships between bilingual language policy,
stakeholders’ circulating discourses about bilingualism, and CLIL
bilingual classroom practices. This approach can help elucidate, among
other things, neoliberalization and commodification processes involved
in the global spread of English in Europe. The following section
illustrates the case of bilingual programs in the south-central
autonomous community of Castilla–La Mancha, Spain. The chapter ends with
a discussion of some future directions for CLIL research in Europe.</p>
</div>
<div id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-div1-141" class="gmail-div1"><h1><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2549">CLIL Research in Europe</p></h1>
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2550">Since the 1990s, the
promotion of CLIL as a type of bilingual education policy has been
strongly supported by both the Council of Europe and the European
Commission in their effort to foster linguistic diversity,
plurilingualism, plurilingual education, and English language education
in the Union (see <a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1458" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1458">Baetens Beardsmore, 2009</a>,
for a review of the advocacy of CLIL by these European supra-national
institutions). CLIL is defined in this chapter as an umbrella term that
would include any type of language program in which a second language is
used as the medium to teach a variety of content subjects, depending on
policymakers’ allocation of human and material resources across
different educational sites (see <a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1463" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1463">Cenoz, Genesee, & Gorter, 2014</a>; <a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1487" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1487">Lasagabaster & Ruiz de Zarobe, 2010</a>; <a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1509" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1509">Ruiz de Zarobe, 2013</a>, for discussions of CLIL programs in multilingual education research).</p>
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2551"><a name="p509" class="gmail-pageNumber"><span id="gmail-pageid_509" class="gmail-pageNumber">
(p. 509)
</span></a>Although CLIL researchers admit that CLIL is a
multifaceted phenomenon involving different stakeholders and different
aspects of language and content learning, very few studies have
emphasized the language policy dimension of CLIL, or adopted
ethnographic perspectives that take into account the links between CLIL
as a type of bilingual education policy, stakeholders’ discourses, and
classroom practices. Researchers such as <a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1492" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1492">Nikula et al. (2013, p. 72)</a>, following <a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1468" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1468">Dalton-Puffer and Smit (2007)</a> and <a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1469" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1469">Dalton-Puffer et al. (2010)</a>,
acknowledge “both holistic macro and particularized micro perspectives
toward the phenomena studied in CLIL” and propose a visual diagram to
explain the three dominant perspectives that, according to them, CLIL
classroom discourse research is oriented toward: “(a) classroom
discourse as an evidence-base for language learning, (b) language use
and social-interactional aspects of CLIL classroom interaction, and (c)
processes of knowledge construction in and through CLIL classroom
discourse (<a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1492" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1492">Nikula et al., 2013</a>, pp. 73–74). These authors conclude that CLIL classroom discourse research needs to be complemented with</p>
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2552"></p><blockquote class="gmail-prosequoteType"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2553">ethnographically
oriented approaches that would help highlight both the participants’
emic understandings of CLIL as well as reveal the whole ecology (<a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1516" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1516">van Lier, 2004</a>)
of CLIL extending beyond the confines of the classroom to institutional
cultures, societal factors including policy-level considerations, and
prevalent discourses around language and education that impact on
classroom realities. (p. 92)</p></blockquote><p></p>
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2554">Similarly, the most recent overviews of CLIL research in Europe (Pérez-Cañado, <a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1496" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1496">2012</a>, <a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1497" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1497">2016</a>) and Spain (<a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1471" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1471">Dooley & Masats, 2015</a>)
identify the following as main foci of research in this area:
“ ‘classroom discourse’; ‘focus on content and/or language’; and
‘teacher roles and teacher education’ ” (<a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1471" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1471">Dooley & Masats, 2015</a>,
p. 347), as well as “linguistic outcomes; longitudinal studies;
assessment of language and content; CLIL methodology; CLIL teacher
observation; and teacher training” (<a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1496" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1496">Pérez-Cañado, 2012</a>, p. 331). <a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1497" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1497">Pérez-Cañado (2016)</a>
views CLIL research in Europe as shifting from what she calls “the CLIL
craze” or “initial phase” that highlighted the benefits of CLIL and
praised its implementation as a good model of bilingual education to
“the CLIL conundrum,” or “second phase,” which “harbors a pessimistic
outlook on its effects and feasibility” (p. 17). According to <a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1497" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1497">Pérez-Cañado (2016)</a>,
researchers who question the positive outcomes of CLIL research base
their criticism on the methodological shortcomings related to
“variables,” “research design,” and “statistical methodology” (pp.
17–18). Despite the need for more qualitative CLIL research, described
by Pérez-Cañado as including “extensive classroom observation,”
“videotaping,” and “short face-to-face interviews with teachers” (pp.
18–19), ethnographic research on CLIL as policy and practice has been
overlooked.</p>
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2555">One of the exceptions that bridge the gap between policy and practice in CLIL research is <a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1509" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1509">Ruiz de Zarobe (2013)</a>, who points out that</p>
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2556"></p><blockquote class="gmail-prosequoteType"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2557">[t]he
implementation of CLIL has been supported, on the one hand, by language
policy-makers, stakeholders and European institutions and, on the
other, by individual initiatives undertaken by school communities,
teachers and parents, all of <a name="p510" class="gmail-pageNumber"><span id="gmail-pageid_510" class="gmail-pageNumber">
(p. 510)
</span></a>them seeking to improve foreign language competence in a
world where globalization and the knowledge society are encouraging
foreign-language learning and communication. (p. 231)</p></blockquote><p></p>
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2558"><a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1481" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1481">Hüttner, Dalton-Puffer, and Smit (2013)</a>
also analyze stakeholders’ beliefs about CLIL in Austria in relation to
European language policy mandates to improve individuals’ ability to
communicate in more than one language (<a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1473" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1473">European Commission, 2012</a>). Following <a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1513" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1513">Spolsky’s (2004)</a>
tripartite model of language policy and planning that includes
“language practices,” “language beliefs,” and “language intervention,
planning or management” (p. 5), these authors conclude that participants
in their study did not make reference to any CLIL policy in Austria or
to CLIL as a European language-in-education policy, and instead they
perceived CLIL as a pedagogic innovation that relied on their work. In
Catalonia, <a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1502" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1502">Pladevall-Ballester (2015)</a>
analyzes CLIL teachers’, students’, and parents’ perceptions about the
implementation of CLIL in five primary schools using opinion
questionnaires and interviews. She concludes that, overall, CLIL is
perceived “as a positive practice that promotes motivation, learning and
interest in the foreign language” although “more communication is
needed among the groups of stakeholders to ensure a more realistic
perception of CLIL implementation” (p. 57).</p>
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2559">In sum, CLIL has been the
most praised form of bilingual education policy in Europe, leading to
the proliferation of CLIL-type bilingual programs that are widely seen
as a “truly European approach for the integration of language and
content in the curriculum as part of the international mosaic of
multilingualism” (<a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1509" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1509">Ruiz de Zarobe, 2013</a>, p. 233). However, with the exception of studies such as <a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1486" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1486">Labajos Miguel and Martín Rojo (2011)</a>, <a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1490" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1490">Martín Rojo (2013)</a>, <a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1500" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1500">Pérez-Milans and Patiño-Santos (2014)</a>, <a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1504" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1504">Relaño-Pastor (2015)</a>, and <a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1464" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1464">Codó and Patiño (2017)</a>,
sociolinguistic ethnographies that address the complex relationship
between policy and practice in CLIL-type bilingual programs and schools
are still scarce (see <a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1465" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1465">Codó & Relaño-Pastor, forthcoming</a>, for a discussion of ethnographic perspectives to multilingual education research).</p>
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2560">The next section examines the successful implementation of CLIL in compulsory education across different EU states (<a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1474" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1474">Eurydice, 2006</a>)
by embracing a critical sociolinguistic ethnography perspective on CLIL
as policy and practice to shed light on the neoliberalization and
commodification processes at play in English-language education in
Europe.</p>
</div>
<div id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-div1-142" class="gmail-div1"><h1><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2561">CLIL as Neoliberal Language Policy and Practice</p></h1>
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2562">Bilingual education policy
and CLIL-type bilingual programs in Europe are shaped by “the economic
dimension of English as a global language,” which, according to <a name="p511" class="gmail-pageNumber"><span id="gmail-pageid_511" class="gmail-pageNumber">
(p. 511)
</span></a><a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1507" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1507">Ricento (2015)</a>,
is “what determines its value and status in countries with aspirations
to participate in the knowledge economy” (p. 37). Several scholars have
argued for the political economy perspective in fields other than that
of language policy (<a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1507" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1507">Ricento, 2015</a>), including recent calls in applied linguistics (<a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1459" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1459">Block, 2017</a>).
In his state-of-the-art article, Block argues for a critical political
economy approach to applied linguistics that addresses “the
interrelatedness of political and economic processes and phenomena such
as aggregate economic activity, resource allocation, capital
accumulation, income inequality, globalisation and imperial power” (p.
35).</p>
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2563">From this perspective, CLIL
can be analyzed as a potential “mechanism for creating and sustaining
systems of inequality that benefit the wealthy and powerful individuals,
groups, institutions and nation-states, as well as for resisting
systems of inequality” (<a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1515" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1515">Tollefson, 2013</a>,
p. 27). Yet at the same time, it is important to analyze “the agency of
all actors in the policymaking process, particularly their ability to
alter what seems to be the coercive and deterministic trajectories of
class-based policymaking bodies and other institutional forms and
structures” (p. 28). Thus research should, on the one hand, examine the
conditions under which supra-national policy bodies in Europe (e.g.,
Council of Europe, European Commission) favor CLIL as the preferred type
of bilingual education and seek to impose their will on individuals and
communities; and, on the other hand, interpret the conditions under
which individuals and communities have the agentive power to change the
material aspects of CLIL practice, for example the allocation of
resources to teach content subjects through the medium of English. In
this sense, the ethnographic agenda of language policy put forward,
first by <a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1508" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1508">Ricento and Hornberger (1996)</a> and later developed by <a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1480" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1480">Hornberger and Johnson (2007)</a>, provides one possible way of “examining the agents, contexts, and processes across multiple layers of what <a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1508" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1508">Ricento and Hornberger (1996)</a> metaphorically referred to as the language policy onion” (<a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1483" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1483">Johnson & Ricento, 2013</a>, p. 14).</p>
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2564">As <a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1480" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1480">Hornberger and Johnson (2007)</a>
agree, “ethnographic language policy research offers a means for
exploring how varying local interpretations, implementations,
negotiations, and perhaps resistance can pry open implementational and
ideological spaces for multilingual language education” (p. 511). <a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1483" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1483">Johnson and Ricento (2013)</a> further argue that</p>
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2565"></p><blockquote class="gmail-prosequoteType"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2566">[c]ritical
language policy theory continues to be influential and integral and is
not at odds with other orientations (like the ethnography of language
policy) that foreground agency and bottom-up language planning and
policy. Indeed, a balance between structure and agency—between critical
conceptualizations that focus on the power of language policy and
ethnographic and other qualitative work that focuses on the power of
language policy agents—is precisely what the field needs. (p. 13)</p></blockquote><p></p>
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2567">Ethnographic and critical approaches to language policy are also in line with critical sociolinguistic ethnography (<a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1478" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1478">Heller, 2011</a>; <a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1489" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1489">Martín Rojo, 2010</a>; <a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1495" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1495">Patiño-Santos, 2012</a>; Pérez-Milans, <a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1498" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1498">2013</a>, <a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1499" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1499">2015</a>; <a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1503" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1503">Rampton, 2006</a>), which addresses situated linguistic practices in relation “to institutional policies and wider socio-economic <a name="p512" class="gmail-pageNumber"><span id="gmail-pageid_512" class="gmail-pageNumber">
(p. 512)
</span></a>transformations” (see <a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1499" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1499">Pérez-Milans, 2015</a>,
for a comprehensive account of the interrelationship between
language-in-education policies, language ideologies, situated practices,
and wider economic processes of late modernity such as
neoliberalization and commodification). In the case of CLIL,
neoliberalism, understood as “the voice of global capitalism” (<a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1479" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1479">Holborow, 2015</a>,
p. 1), plays a role in the commodification of English-language teaching
and learning in CLIL-type bilingual education programs in Europe.</p>
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2568">As a type of “economic ideology” (<a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1501" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1501">Piller & Cho, 2013</a>),
neoliberalism is embedded in language policy mechanisms that push for
the global spread of English. In their study of “the cost of English” in
South Korea at all educational levels, <a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1501" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1501">Piller and Cho (2013)</a>
analyze how English, particularly in higher education, is not merely
the “result of the free linguistic market,” but rather of a “systematic,
organized, and orchestrated policy” (p. 38) that serves the interests
of “neoliberal free-market fundamentalism” (p. 39), all of it under the
naturalization of English as a “quantifiable index of globalization” (p.
39). Similarly, <a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1494" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1494">Park and Wee (2012)</a>, <a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1475" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1475">Gao and Park (2015)</a>, <a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1491" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1491">Martín Rojo et al. (2017)</a>, and <a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1464" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1464">Codó and Patiño (2017)</a>
emphasize the need to ground language policies and the resulting
linguistic practices in the political and economic processes involved in
the implementation of English-language programs such as CLIL: “We need
to understand CLIL programmes as complex undertakings involving a
multiplicity of social actors with various (and sometimes conflicting)
interests, enmeshed in networks of shifting economic, political and
material conditions, and as constructing or reinforcing unequal power
relations” (<a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1464" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1464">Codó & Patiño, 2017</a>, p. 4).</p>
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2569">How should an ethnographic,
political economy analysis of CLIL be undertaken? In the following
section, I illustrate how neoliberal language policy agendas shape
CLIL-type bilingual programs in the south-central autonomous region of
Castilla–La Mancha, in Spain. I focus on the categorization processes
involved in the labeling of schools and social actors in this region as <i>bilingual</i>,
as they emerge in interviews with regional and local language planners
as well as CLIL teachers participating in these bilingual programs. This
data is part of an ongoing critical sociolinguistic ethnography
conducted in four bilingual schools in this region: two public, (i.e.,
state-run) primary and secondary schools, one religious semi-private
(i.e., state-funded private) school, and one lay semi-private school.<a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-note-1" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-note-1"><sup>1</sup></a></p>
</div>
<div id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-div1-143" class="gmail-div1"><h1><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2570">Bilingual Craze and Pressure in Castilla–La Mancha Schools</p></h1>
<div id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-div2-90" class="gmail-div2">
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2571">Castilla-La Mancha is one of
the eleven autonomous regions where Spanish is the official language,
alongside six other bilingual regions where, according to <a name="p513" class="gmail-pageNumber"><span id="gmail-pageid_513" class="gmail-pageNumber">
(p. 513)
</span></a>Article 3 of the Spanish Constitution (1978), Catalan,
Galician, and Basque are spoken and recognized as co-official languages
(i.e., Catalonia, Galicia, the Basque Country, Navarre, Valencia, and
the Balearic Islands). In the last two decades, bilingual programs in
public and semi-private schools in Castilla–La Mancha have proliferated,
transforming classroom practices as well as discourses and ideologies
around what bilingual education entails and how bilingualism in Spanish
and English is understood and embedded in the lives of different
stakeholders (families, students, teachers, and language planners).</p>
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2572">The first bilingual programs
in Castilla–La Mancha started in 1996 as part of a signed agreement
between the Spanish Ministry of Education (MECD) and the British Council
to implement early bilingual Spanish/English education throughout the
country. A total of forty-four Spanish primary bilingual schools were
involved in the Bilingual School Project of this agreement, fourteen of
which (seven primary and seven secondary) were distributed in the four
provinces of Castilla–La Mancha. Since 2005, the institutionalization of
bilingual programs under European language-in-education policy
initiatives to promote “plurilingual and intercultural communication” (<a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1466" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1466">Council of Europe, 2014</a>, p. 5; <a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1473" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1473">European Commission, 2012</a>),
as well as regional language planning efforts to democratize
English-language learning for “all,” has undergone different language
planning phases and nomenclatures: European Sections (Secciones
Europeas) (2005–2011); Bilingual Sections (Secciones Bilingües)
(2011–2014); and Linguistic Programs (Programas Lingüísticos)
(2014–present). In February 2017, the new plurilingualism decree, <i>Plan Integral de Enseñanza de Lenguas Extranjeras de la Comunidad Autónoma de Castilla–La Mancha</i>
(Integral Plan for the Teaching of Foreign Languages in the Autonomous
Community of Castilla–La Mancha), was drafted to be implemented in the
academic year 2017–2018. Among the amendments proposed in this decree,
the distinction between three levels of bilingual implementation
(Initiation, Development, and Excellence) that had been used in CLM
schools to the present was eliminated. That is, bilingual schools were
no longer classified into one of these levels. Prior to 2017, the
distinction among bilingual schools was made according to the number of
DNL (Disciplinas No Lingüísticas) or content-subjects taught in English
(one, two, or three or more), as well as the number of teachers who
could certify at an accredited B2 level (i.e., independent user), in
line with the Common European Framework of Reference for Language
Learning (CEFR). In the case of the bilingual schools of excellence, in
addition to being able to teach three DNL in English, they had to count
on at least one accredited C1 teacher (i.e., proficient user).</p>
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2573">In the academic year
2016–2017, a total of 588 bilingual programs operated throughout the
five provinces of CLM. In the province of La Mancha (pseudonym), where
the ethnographic research presented in this chapter was conducted, there
are 151 bilingual schools, twenty-two of them located in La Mancha City
(pseudonym; LMC, hereafter), with a population of 72,000 inhabitants.
Among them, twelve public and eight semi-private schools use English as
the medium of instruction in <a name="p514" class="gmail-pageNumber"><span id="gmail-pageid_514" class="gmail-pageNumber">
(p. 514)
</span></a>DNL subjects; the two other schools (one primary and one secondary) are bilingual in French and Spanish.</p>
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2574">Regarding the level of
implementation, five of these schools are characterized as having
implemented their Spanish-English bilingual programs at the <i>initiation</i> level, twelve at the <i>development</i> level, and only two of them (one primary and one secondary) at the <i>excellence</i>
level. These two, together with two semi-private schools, whose
Spanish-English bilingual programs are currently being implemented at
the development level, are the focus of research in the ongoing
sociolinguistic ethnography carried out in LMC bilingual schools
(2015–present). Data include participant observation, field notes and
audio recordings in DNL subjects taught in English as well as in English
language classes, semi-structured and conversational interviews with
stakeholders (language planners, education inspectors, heads of schools,
bilingual program coordinators, bilingual teachers, students, and
families), and language policy documents, classroom materials, and
visual texts produced in these schools.</p>
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2575">The aforementioned language
policy initiatives are central to understanding the types of classroom
practices and circulating discourses about bilingualism, bilingual
programs, and bilingual teachers and students at LMC schools. Following <a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1477" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1477">Heller (2007)</a>,
bilingualism is an ideological and social enterprise that needs to be
understood as ideology and social practice, as well as revelatory of
particular social processes in the neoliberal economic order of late
modernity. As she puts it, “a critical social perspective on the concept
of bilingualism, combining practice, ideology and political economy,
allows us to examine the ways in which that idea figures in major forms
of social organization and regulation” (p. 2).</p>
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2576">As in other socially
constructed monolingual Spanish autonomous regions such as Madrid, the
commodification of this “bilingual boom” (<a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1504" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1504">Relaño-Pastor, 2015</a>)
has developed in line with what different stakeholders, families, and
teachers refer to as “the bilingual pressures” that are intensifying in
the Spanish educational system (see <a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1506" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1506">Relaño-Pastor, 2018b</a>, for an analysis of the circulating narratives of bilingualism among families in LMC).</p>
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2577">In what follows, I discuss
how social categorization processes leading to academic hierarchies and
social exclusion emerge in the ethnographic interviews conducted with
regional and provincial language planners, the education inspector of
the province of LMC, and CLIL teachers participating in these programs.
For the analysis, I focus on participants’ “moral stancetaking” (<a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1482" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1482">Jaffe, 2009</a>; <a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1493" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1493">Ochs & Capps, 2001</a>) in the narratives of bilingualism shared in these interviews. Following “social interactional approaches (SIA)” (<a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1470" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1470">De Fina & Georgakopoulou, 2012</a>) and anthropological approaches to the study of conversational narrative (<a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1493" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1493">Ochs & Capps, 2001</a>),
narratives in this chapter are defined as situated, sense-making,
mutually achieved social practices that individuals engage in at
different points of time and space, and which are embedded in multiple
discursive practices (for a discussion on the circularity and
appropriation of narratives of bilingualism in ethnographic <a name="p515" class="gmail-pageNumber"><span id="gmail-pageid_515" class="gmail-pageNumber">
(p. 515)
</span></a>interviews, see <a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1505" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1505">Relaño-Pastor, 2018a</a>).
The analysis of moral stancetaking in these narratives sheds light on
stakeholders’ perspectives on how bilingualism and bilingual programs
are being implemented in CLM schools and the moral meanings associated
with them.</p>
</div>
<div id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-div2-91" class="gmail-div2">
<h2 id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-titleGroup-238">“Bilingualism Is On-Trend”: Commodification and Social Hierarchization in Castilla–La Mancha Bilingual Schools</h2>
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2579">To serve the interests of the
local and global English-language markets, English language education
in Castilla–La Mancha has been resignified as bilingualism that is
commodified, conveys added value to schools, and is sought as a source
of “pride and profit” (<a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1472" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1472">Duchêne & Heller, 2012</a>) among stakeholders. As <a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1494" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1494">Park and Wee (2012)</a>
point out, “English does not exist secluded in the economic market, but
functions as a sign in all aspects of social life in which people
either use or talk about English” (p. 124). In the case of LMC,
stakeholders’ shared narratives of bilingualism reveal how they take a
stance toward English-language education in the region while engaging in
social categorization processes involving types of schools, teachers,
and students. The interpretation of these social categorization
processes in LMC bilingual schools is tied to the understanding of
“bilingualism as ideology, practice and political economy” (<a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1477" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1477">Heller, 2007</a>)
adopted by the critical sociolinguistic ethnography of CLIL policy and
practice put forward in this chapter. The following extracts illustrate
the hierarchization of schools, teachers, and students according to the
levels of implementation of the bilingual programs, English proficiency,
and academic performance, respectively.</p>
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2580">Excerpt 1 is part of the
interview conducted with Javier (J), the inspector of bilingual programs
in the province of La Mancha City. Together with three researchers,
Esther (E), May (M), and David (D), Javier discusses the differences
between the implementation of bilingual programs in primary and
secondary education. Whereas in primary schools all the students are
expected to attend CLIL subjects, there is variation in secondary
education: in semi-private schools, all the students are involved in
bilingual programs from preschool to secondary education, in contrast to
public schools, where they can choose whether to continue with the
bilingual program at the secondary level (see transcription conventions
used here in Appendix):</p>
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2581">Excerpt 1. “Ghettos are created”</p>
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2582">
</p><ol class="gmail-other gmail-customEnumerator">
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-282"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2583"><span class="enumerator">1.</span> E: but don’t you think that a small selection may exist↑=</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-283"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2584"><span class="enumerator">2.</span> J: =yes yes of course.</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-284"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2585"><span class="enumerator">3.</span> E: [implicit more in secondary than in primary=</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-285"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2586"><span class="enumerator">4.</span> J: =there is there is there is that’s clear (.3) there’s a selection of students (.2)</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-286"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2587"><span class="enumerator">5.</span> eh:: that’s another thing:: that many:: that many parents and many teachers</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-287"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2588"><a name="p516" class="gmail-pageNumber"><span id="gmail-pageid_516" class="gmail-pageNumber">
(p. 516)
</span></a><span class="enumerator">6.</span> eh:::n refer to to be against these programs=the fact that ghettos are created (.6)</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-288"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2589"><span class="enumerator">7.</span> that’s the word that=I’m tired of hearing [that</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-289"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2590"><span class="enumerator">8.</span> M: [but is that something that:: is that what teachers or:::</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-290"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2591"><span class="enumerator">9.</span> J: both parents and >teachers=both<=for example in the admission applications</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-291"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2592"><span class="enumerator">10.</span> they tell you “I don’t want this school because there=there are classrooms for</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-292"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2593"><span class="enumerator">11.</span> smart and dumb students”=literally (.) I saw it yesterday in one of the</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-293"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2594"><span class="enumerator">12.</span> applications (.) why ↑ because there is a bilingual section and in the bilingual</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-294"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2595"><span class="enumerator">13.</span> groups they say that’s where the smart students are=</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-295"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2596"><span class="enumerator">14.</span> E: =but the law tries to avoid that</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-296"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2597"><span class="enumerator">15.</span> J: obviously ↑ only DNL students are grouped together</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-297"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2598"><span class="enumerator">16.</span> E: of course</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-298"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2599"><span class="enumerator">17.</span> J: >and only in the content subjects taught in the language but they are together in the</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-299"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2600"><span class="enumerator">18.</span> rest of the subjects <obviously you cannot have pure groups of</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-300"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2601"><span class="enumerator">19.</span> bilingual students but there exists the:: the:: generalized idea among parents</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-301"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2602"><span class="enumerator">20.</span> and teachers that ghettos are created and this is one of the things that leads to</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-302"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2603"><span class="enumerator">21.</span> the resistance among teachers =</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-303"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2604"><span class="enumerator">22.</span> D: =and when you talk about ghettos sorry ghettos would be:: eh: (.3) the ghetto=</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-304"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2605"><span class="enumerator">23.</span> J: =the elite and the non-elite ghetto</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-305"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2606"><span class="enumerator">24.</span> D: both things would be=</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-306"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2607"><span class="enumerator">25.</span> J: =obviously and many teachers (.) especially those who’ve been:: they’ve</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-307"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2608"><span class="enumerator">26.</span> been more years in the [bilingual program] they say that they are going to have</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-308"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2609"><span class="enumerator">27.</span> the bad:: group and the new teachers (.) the young ones with their level of</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-309"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2610"><span class="enumerator">28.</span> linguistic competence are going to teach the good students (1).</p></li>
</ol>
<p></p>
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2611">Stakeholders’ talk about
English-language education in our ethnography brought bilingualism as
ideology and practice to the fore. In excerpt 1, Javier’s moral
assessment of the selection of students in bilingual programs echoes
parents’ and teachers’ opinions about how bilingual programs result in
“ghettos” of elite and non-elite students (lines 6, 23). One of the
dominant conversational themes in our ethnography had to with the
dominant social categorization process regarding bilingual and
non-bilingual students. As Javier’s narrative illustrates, the
organization of bilingual programs at LMC schools involves the selection
of students into bilingual and non-bilingual groups, who are morally
evaluated according to their academic performance (i.e., “smart” versus
“dumb” students, lines 10–13). This idea also circulated in line with
the belief that teachers of bilingual students taught the “good”
students (line 28). In this way, Javier’s narrative incorporates
parents’ and teachers’ voices of discontent regarding the
hierarchization of students into “elite and non-elite ghettos” based on
access to the linguistic capital of English. In the case of teachers,
our ethnography shows that English becomes a mark of distinction having
to do with improved teaching conditions (i.e., a lower ratio of students
per class, best students in terms of academic and social behavior, and
more academically involved families).</p>
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2612">The same social
categorization processes also emerge in the interview with Luis, the
regional Head of the Division of Bilingual Sections and European
Programs in Castilla–La Mancha, who assesses how the different levels of
bilingual program implementation—in addition to creating hierarchies
among <a name="p517" class="gmail-pageNumber"><span id="gmail-pageid_517" class="gmail-pageNumber">
(p. 517)
</span></a>bilingual and non-bilingual students and teachers—are a
source of friction among secondary schools. At the time of the
interview, in June 2016, Luis had been in his job for almost a year, and
his main concerns involved potential changes that would take place from
the new decree of plurilingualism he was responsible for planning and
implementing in the 2017–2018 academic year. In the following excerpt,
when researcher May (M) asks him about how different the new decree of
plurilingualism was expected to be, Luis voices the intention of his
team to eliminate the hierarchization of bilingual schools according to
their levels of implementation.</p>
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2613">Excerpt 2. “First-, second-, third-class schools”</p>
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2614">
</p><ol class="gmail-other gmail-customEnumerator">
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-310"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2615"><span class="enumerator">1.</span> L: = what I can tell you is that we have:: the idea of unifying a little bit (.)</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-311"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2616"><span class="enumerator">2.</span> unifying the structure of these programs</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-312"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2617"><span class="enumerator">3.</span> M: [uhm uh]</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-313"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2618"><span class="enumerator">4.</span> L: [I mean uh::] uh:: from my point of view hh u:::l (.) this distinction between programs</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-314"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2619"><span class="enumerator">5.</span> of initiation, development and excellence hh</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-315"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2620"><span class="enumerator">6.</span> M: Uhm uh =</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-316"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2621"><span class="enumerator">7.</span> L: = the only thing it has been generating is [eh:: (0.5) a disparity of levels among schools</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-317"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2622"><span class="enumerator">8.</span> M: [uhm uh] =</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-318"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2623"><span class="enumerator">9.</span> L: As you can imagine this already creates (.) [comparisons]</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-319"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2624"><span class="enumerator">10.</span> L: = among schools (.) [first class schools]</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-320"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2625"><span class="enumerator">11.</span> M: [uhm uh] =</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-321"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2626"><span class="enumerator">12.</span> L: = second class schools (.) third class uhm [so]</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-322"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2627"><span class="enumerator">13.</span> M: [uhm uh]</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-323"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2628"><span class="enumerator">14.</span> L: uhm so there you’re already generating a problem</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-324"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2629"><span class="enumerator">15.</span> M: Uhm uh</p></li>
</ol>
<p></p>
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2630">Although the process of
social distinction among bilingual schools regarding their material
capacity to initiate, develop, or excel in the number of CLIL subjects
and CLIL teachers with the required linguistic accreditation (B2, C1
levels) (lines 4–5) would be eliminated in the new decree of
plurilingualism, Luis’s moral assessment of schools according to levels
of implementation (i.e., “first,” “second,” “third class”) implies the
continued unequal distribution of knowledge, resources, and spaces (<a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1477" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1477">Heller, 2007</a>)
in these schools (see lines 10–12). That is, schools at the initiation
level would only implement one content-subject in English, would only
need one accredited B1 CLIL teacher, and would only group bilingual
students in one subject; whereas those schools having more resources in
terms of teachers’ linguistic capital and number of CLIL subjects would
also be more exposed to tensions and dilemmas among teachers. For those
participating in these bilingual programs, the emerging social
categorization of bilingual and non-bilingual teachers brought to the
fore differences in their English-language competence, professional
development, and teaching conditions. Those teachers with the required
linguistic accreditation were usually younger and less experienced, but
could benefit from teaching the “best” students in smaller groups. In
excerpts 3 and 4, Luis continues to evaluate <a name="p518" class="gmail-pageNumber"><span id="gmail-pageid_518" class="gmail-pageNumber">
(p. 518)
</span></a>the challenges that the implementation of bilingual programs has meant for LMC schools.</p>
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2631">Excerpt 3. “Non-bilingual students”</p>
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2632">
</p><ol class="gmail-other gmail-customEnumerator">
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-325"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2633"><span class="enumerator">1.</span> L: But the biggest problem comes (.) with:: the twenty-eight or thirty students (.)</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-326"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2634"><span class="enumerator">2.</span> who are not bilingual=</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-327"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2635"><span class="enumerator">3.</span> M: = Uhm uh =</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-328"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2636"><span class="enumerator">4.</span> L: = which is generally the group where >the group< where you find the most [deprived]</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-329"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2637"><span class="enumerator">5.</span> M: [uhm uh] =</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-330"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2638"><span class="enumerator">6.</span> L: = socially (.) [uh:::]</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-331"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2639"><span class="enumerator">7.</span> M: [uhm uh] =</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-332"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2640"><span class="enumerator">8.</span> L: = academically (.) where on top of that you have [in those]</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-333"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2641"><span class="enumerator">9.</span> M: [uhm uh] =</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-334"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2642"><span class="enumerator">10.</span> L: = groups (.) students with [special needs::]</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-335"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2643"><span class="enumerator">11.</span> M: [uhm uh]</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-336"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2644"><span class="enumerator">12.</span> L: uh I mean (.) [the disruptive ones]</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-337"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2645"><span class="enumerator">13.</span> M: [uhm uh]</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-338"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2646"><span class="enumerator">14.</span> L: there [a time bomb] is created</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-339"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2647"><span class="enumerator">15.</span> M: [uhm uh] (.) uhm uh =</p></li>
</ol>
<p></p>
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2648">In this narrative, Luis
categorizes non-bilingual students as being “the biggest problem” in
schools (lines 1–2) and morally evaluates them not only in terms of
academic performance, but also in terms of socioeconomic status and
social behavior (lines 4, 6, 8, 10, 12). Another circulating theme in
our ethnography had to do with significant disparity of class sizes,
with the non-bilingual classes the most crowded. The dominant
hierarchization of bilingual/non-bilingual students was in line with the
hierarchization of bilingual/non-bilingual teachers based on English as
linguistic capital. In the following excerpt, Luis explains the moral
meanings associated with the knowledge of English.</p>
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2649">Excerpt 4: “You are lucky to know English”</p>
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2650">
</p><ol class="gmail-other gmail-customEnumerator">
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-340"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2651"><span class="enumerator">1.</span> L: And that: (.) creates differences among students in terms of achievement uhm: (.)</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-341"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2652"><span class="enumerator">2.</span> the non-bilingual group lowers their academic performance uhhm and regarding the</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-342"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2653"><span class="enumerator">3.</span> teachers (.) what I was telling you earlier (.) [the:]</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-343"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2654"><span class="enumerator">4.</span> M: [uhm uh] =</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-344"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2655"><span class="enumerator">5.</span> L: = the suspicions (.) I mean (.) “you are lucky to:: uhm know English”↑</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-345"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2656"><span class="enumerator">6.</span> so then you are teaching the good twenty-five students group ↑ (.) and me who</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-346"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2657"><span class="enumerator">7.</span> doesn’t know English =</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-347"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2658"><span class="enumerator">8.</span> M: = uhm uh =</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-348"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2659"><span class="enumerator">9.</span> L: = I have to teach the bad group hh with:: thirty-two (0.5) [that nobody]</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-349"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2660"><span class="enumerator">10.</span> M: [uhm uh] =</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-350"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2661"><span class="enumerator">11.</span> L: = would split (.) and on top of that I have been at this school for eleven years and</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-351"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2662"><span class="enumerator">12.</span> you just arrived ↑</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-352"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2663"><span class="enumerator">13.</span> M: Uhm uh</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-353"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2664"><span class="enumerator">14.</span> L: and so (.) that:: (.) [is what]</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-354"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2665"><a name="p519" class="gmail-pageNumber"><span id="gmail-pageid_519" class="gmail-pageNumber">
(p. 519)
</span></a><span class="enumerator">15.</span> M: [uhm uh] =</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-355"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2666"><span class="enumerator">16.</span> L: = ends up [blowing out::]</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-356"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2667"><span class="enumerator">17.</span> M: [uhm uh] =</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-357"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2668"><span class="enumerator">18.</span> L: >sometimes [it doesn’t happen all the time<]</p></li>
</ol>
<p></p>
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2669">In this narrative, Luis
constructs English as an object with added value that polarizes teachers
in bilingual schools into those who can enjoy better conditions,
despite being less experienced (lines 6, 12), and those who have worse
labor conditions, despite their greater professional experience (line
9). Once again, the social categorization process involving
bilingual/non-bilingual teachers conveys moral meanings associated with
bilingualism that can be measured (i.e., fewer students in class; better
academic performance; more professional recognition) and results in
tensions among teachers in some cases (line 16).</p>
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2670">These last two excerpts
illustrate how the desire for improving English-language education
through CLIL-type bilingual programs brings about the academic <i>othering</i>
of those students who do not participate in these programs. That is,
both content and English teachers participating in these bilingual
programs assessed their teaching experiences with bilingual and
non-bilingual students very differently, from having very low
expectations of non-bilingual students to full academic confidence in
their bilingual students.</p>
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2671">In excerpt 5, Ernesto, the
CLIL physics teacher at San Marcos, the semi-private religious school of
our research, takes a moral stance toward bilingualism as a trend in
the Spanish educational system with consequences for the selection,
distribution, and social hierarchization of students in bilingual and
non-bilingual groups taught by bilingual and non-bilingual teachers. San
Marcos, the oldest semi-private religious school in LMC, implemented
the regional bilingual program at the development level in primary and
secondary education in 2010. In addition, it also offers a trilingual
program, starting in the third year of compulsory secondary education,
where students are taught geography in French. The school is one of the
Cambridge English examination centers in LMC, hires native
English-language assistants, and belongs to the network of Catholic
bilingual schools under the BEDA program (Bilingual English Development
and Assessment).</p>
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2672">Excerpt 5. “Bilingualism is on-trend”</p>
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2673">
</p><ol class="gmail-other gmail-customEnumerator">
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-358"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2674"><span class="enumerator">1.</span> E: Bilingualism is kind of a trend (1.0) it’s almost inevitable uh uhm (.) it establishes two</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-359"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2675"><span class="enumerator">2.</span> learning speeds (1.0)</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-360"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2676"><span class="enumerator">3.</span> M: Uhm uh =</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-361"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2677"><span class="enumerator">4.</span> E: = Smart (.) dumb (.) it’s almost inevitable (.) no single family (.5) whose children (.)</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-362"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2678"><span class="enumerator">5.</span> who have (.) normal children (2.0) uhm (1.0) would decide that their children are going</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-363"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2679"><span class="enumerator">6.</span> to study in Spanish [ . . . ]</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-365"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2681"><span class="enumerator">7.</span> E: and of course (1.0) bilingualism is creating two learning speeds among</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-366"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2682"><span class="enumerator">8.</span> students (2.0) and also (.5) among teachers</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-367"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2683"><a name="p520" class="gmail-pageNumber"><span id="gmail-pageid_520" class="gmail-pageNumber">
(p. 520)
</span></a><span class="enumerator">9.</span> M: I see</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-368"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2684"><span class="enumerator">10.</span> E: Also among teachers (.5) because the bilingual teachers (1.0) I: have the</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-369"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2685"><span class="enumerator">11.</span> privilege of taking (.) the best students</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-370"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2686"><span class="enumerator">12.</span> M: [I see]</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-371"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2687"><span class="enumerator">13.</span> AL: [uhm uh] [I see]</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-372"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2688"><span class="enumerator">14.</span> E: [Who do I teach] [I teach the best students]</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-373"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2689"><span class="enumerator">15.</span> M: [I see] =</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-374"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2690"><span class="enumerator">16.</span> E: who do the non-bilingual teachers (.) [who]</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-375"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2691"><span class="enumerator">17.</span> M: [I see] =</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-376"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2692"><span class="enumerator">18.</span> E: = do the non-bilingual teachers teach↑ (.) the worst (1.0) and [of course]</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-377"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2693"><span class="enumerator">19.</span> M: [I see] =</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-378"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2694"><span class="enumerator">20.</span> E: = They are burned out</p></li>
<li id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-item1-379"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2695"><span class="enumerator">21.</span> M: I see</p></li>
</ol>
<p></p>
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2696">Ernesto is the only teacher
in this school accredited with a C1 level. In different informal talks
and conversational interviews we conducted with him, he was always very
critical of his school for requiring him to teach physics in English due
to his C1 level, without professional development support in CLIL or
English. In this extract, Ernesto engages in a personal narrative of
teaching experiences and positions himself as a privileged teacher who
teaches the best students, compared to non-bilingual teachers who are
“burned out” from having the “bad” students (lines 14, 20). He morally
assesses the implementation of bilingualism at schools in LMC for
establishing social hierarchies among teachers
(bilingual/non-bilingual), students (the best and the worst), and levels
of learning (fast and slow). Our ethnography shows that teachers who
participated in the bilingual programs and taught both groups of
students, bilingual and non-bilingual, shared similar pressures from the
lack of support for improving their teaching methods, the scarcity of
CLIL teacher training or professional development courses, as well as,
in Ernesto’s words, their “confidence about the level of English,” which
was particularly undermined in the case of those teachers accredited
with a B2 level of English.</p>
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2697">In sum, these excerpts
illustrate how the institutional interest of the provincial and regional
language policy administration to promote Spanish-English bilingual
programs in Castilla–La Mancha is part of the neoliberal agenda to
democratize English-language education for all. The examples show how
this neoliberal agenda is creating social hierarchization processes
along the lines of who counts as an accepted bilingual teacher and
student, and how schools are entitled to commodify English-language
education to meet the demands of the local and global market of English.
As the provincial head of the language planning section in La Mancha
City put it: “in a world of tremendous competitiveness, where the job
market is demanding that you have to be an entrepreneur, whether you
like or not, the knowledge of languages is basic, so having the
opportunity to extend your education in these bilingual programs is very
positive” (Interview with Miguel, Head of Division of Bilingual
Sections and European Programs in the province of La Mancha City, June
3, 2016).<a name="p521" class="gmail-pageNumber"><span id="gmail-pageid_521" class="gmail-pageNumber">
(p. 521)
</span></a></p>
</div>
</div>
<div id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-div1-144" class="gmail-div1"><h1><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2698">Future Directions</p></h1>
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2699">This chapter has offered an
overview of the most recent CLIL research in Europe from a policy and
practice perspective. However much CLIL has been investigated, there is
still a scarcity of ethnographically oriented research. As a type of
bilingual education policy, CLIL is still in need of being examined
through an ethnographic lens to disentangle the messiness of everyday
classroom practices against the backdrop of neoliberalization and
commodification processes involved in the global spread of English. Thus
this chapter has advocated for an ethnographic perspective toward CLIL
policy and practice that recognizes the multidimensionality of social
actors’ circulating discourses and language ideologies about
bilingualism.</p>
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2700">Future research on CLIL
policy and practice would benefit from the critical ethnography of
language policy within a political economy perspective, together with
critical sociolinguistic ethnography that emphasizes situated linguistic
practices in relation to the wider sociopolitical, moral, and economic
orders. A critical sociolinguistic ethnography of CLIL—and all forms of
bilingual education—allows researchers to tell a comprehensive story of
why social processes unfold the way they do and why social actors engage
in the practices they do. Research on bilingual education should move
forward by incorporating ethnographic approaches that reveal how social
hierarchization processes like the ones discussed in this chapter can be
followed in time and across different social spaces, and how these
processes may be embraced or resisted by different social actors.</p>
</div>
<div id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-section-86" class="gmail-div1"><h1><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2701"><span class="enumerator">Appendix</span> Transcription Conventions</p></h1>
<div id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-div1-244" class="gmail-div1">
<p></p><div class="gmail-tableGroup gmail-tdata" id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-tableGroup-14">
<table class="gmail-" id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-table-14">
<tbody>
<tr class="gmail-">
<td class="gmail-" valign="top" align="left">
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2706">↑</p></td>
<td class="gmail-" valign="top" align="left">
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2707">rising intonation</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="gmail-">
<td class="gmail-" valign="top" align="left">
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2708">↓</p></td>
<td class="gmail-" valign="top" align="left">
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2709">falling intonation</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="gmail-">
<td class="gmail-" valign="top" align="left">
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2710">:::</p></td>
<td class="gmail-" valign="top" align="left">
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2711">elongated sounds</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="gmail-">
<td class="gmail-" valign="top" align="left">
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2712">uhm uh</p></td>
<td class="gmail-" valign="top" align="left">
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2713">shows continuing listenership</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="gmail-">
<td class="gmail-" valign="top" align="left">
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2714">(0.3)</p></td>
<td class="gmail-" valign="top" align="left">
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2715">time elapsed in tenths of seconds</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="gmail-">
<td class="gmail-" valign="top" align="left">
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2716">(.)</p></td>
<td class="gmail-" valign="top" align="left">
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2717">micropause</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="gmail-">
<td class="gmail-" valign="top" align="left">
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2718">[]</p></td>
<td class="gmail-" valign="top" align="left">
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2719">overlapping speech</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="gmail-">
<td class="gmail-" valign="top" align="left">
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2720">[ . . . ]</p></td>
<td class="gmail-" valign="top" align="left">
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2721">extract deletion</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="gmail-">
<td class="gmail-" valign="top" align="left">
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2722">=</p></td>
<td class="gmail-" valign="top" align="left">
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2723">no interval between adjacent utterances. (adapted from Sacks, <a id="gmail-ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1510" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibItem-1510">Jefferson, & Schegloff, 1974</a>)</p></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
</div><p></p>
</div>
</div>
<div id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-section-87" class="gmail-div1"><h1><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2702"><a name="p522" class="gmail-pageNumber"><span id="gmail-pageid_522" class="gmail-pageNumber">
(p. 522)
</span></a>Acknowledgments</p></h1>
<div id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-div1-145" class="gmail-div1">
<p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2703">Data presented in this
chapter were collected as part of the research project APINGLO-CLM, “The
Appropriation of English as a Global Language in Castilla–La Mancha
Secondary Schools” (Ref.: FFI2014-54179-C2-2-P), funded by the Spanish
Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (MINECO), 2015–2017, of which I
am Principal Investigator. I am particularly indebted to the four
schools that opened their doors to this project and all the participants
who kindly shared their conflictual, yet rewarding, stories with us.
Special thanks to Ulpiano Losa Ballesteros for patiently transcribing
interviews to move this project forward.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-section-88" class="gmail-div1">
<div class="gmail-bibliographyGroup"><a name="oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibliographyGroup-25"></a>
<div class="gmail-bibliography"><a name="oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-bibliography-25"></a>
<div id="gmail-References" class="gmail-bibTitle"><h2>
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</div>
</div>
</div><div id="gmail-notes"><h2>Notes:</h2><div id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-note-1" class="gmail-note"><p id="gmail-oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-p-2705">
(<a class="gmail-backref" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190458898.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13#ref_oxfordhb-9780190458898-e-13-note-1">1.</a>)
All names of schools and individuals are pseudonyms.</p></div></div></div>
</div>
<div class="entryAuthorBiographies">
<div class="entryAuthorBio">
<span class="gmail-authorName">
Ana María Relaño-Pastor
</span>
<p class="gmail-authorAffiliation">Ana María Relaño-Pastor is Associate
Professor of Applied Linguistics at the Department of Modern Philology
(English Studies), University of Castilla-La Mancha (UCLM), Spain. She
has been a Visiting Professor and Director of the program in Spanish as a
Heritage Language at the Department of Spanish and Portuguese,
University of Arizona, and a Postdoctoral Fellow at the Department of
Ethnic Studies, University of California, San Diego. Her research
interests include narrative, emotion and identity, language
socialization of Latino communities in the United States, language
education of immigrant communities in Spain, and bi/multilingual
education in Spain. She has published in the journals Language Policy;
International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism; Spanish
in Context; Narrative Inquiry; Theory into Practice; and Linguistics and
Education, among others. She is the author of Shame and Pride in
Narrative: Mexican Women’s Experiences at the U.S.-Mexico Border
(Palgrave MacMillan, 2014).</p>
</div>
</div>
<br>-- <br><div class="gmail_signature" data-smartmail="gmail_signature">=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+<br><br> Harold F. Schiffman<br><br>Professor Emeritus of <br> Dravidian Linguistics and Culture <br>Dept. of South Asia Studies <br>University of Pennsylvania<br>Philadelphia, PA 19104-6305<br><br>Phone: (215) 898-7475<br>Fax: (215) 573-2138 <br><br>Email: <a href="mailto:haroldfs@gmail.com" target="_blank">haroldfs@gmail.com</a><br><a href="http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~haroldfs/" target="_blank">http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~haroldfs/</a> <br><br>-------------------------------------------------</div>
</div>