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<div class="gmail-postComplete__post-header-wrapper"><div><h1 class="gmail-title"><span>The Economic Basis of Assam's Linguistic Politics and Anti-Immigrant Movements</span></h1><p class="gmail-shortDesc">Many
accounts ignore the fact that the Assamese territory saw massive
geographical expansion under the British and that despite immigration,
there was an increase in the Assamese speaking population in what was a
multi-lingual society.</p></div></div><div class="gmail-postComplete__post-image-wrapper"><div class="gmail-featured-image gmail-valign-wrapper gmail-wp-caption gmail-aligncenter"><img src="https://cdn.thewire.in/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/02123033/NRC-1200x600.jpg" alt="The Economic Basis of Assam's Linguistic Politics and Anti-Immigrant Movements" class="gmail-img-responsive"><p class="gmail-wp-caption-text">People protest the final draft of the NRC. Credit: PTI</p></div></div><div class="gmail-postComplete__post-content-wrapper"><div class="gmail-col gmail-s12 gmail-m3"><div><div class="gmail-author"><div class="gmail-author__name"><a target="_blank" title="All Stories by Tapan Kumar Bose" href="https://thewire.in/author/tapan-kumar-bose">Tapan Kumar Bose</a></div></div></div><div class="gmail-share-container gmail-col gmail-s12 gmail-m3 gmail-l3 gmail-xl12 gmail-share-container-mobile" id="gmail-share-294868" style="display:block"><div style="display:inline-block"><div class="gmail-social_count" id="gmail-social_count_box"><div id="gmail-total">107</div><span class="gmail-sharetext">interactions</span></div></div></div></div><div class="gmail-col gmail-s12 gmail-m9 gmail-l9"><div class="gmail-col gmail-s12 gmail-m12"><div class="gmail-top-space gmail-post__content-meta gmail-valign-wrapper"><span class="gmail-data-tag"><a title="History" target="_blank" href="https://thewire.in/category/history/all"><div class="gmail-tag">History</div></a><a title="Politics" target="_blank" href="https://thewire.in/category/politics/all"><div class="gmail-tag">Politics</div></a><a title="Rights" target="_blank" href="https://thewire.in/category/rights/all"><div class="gmail-tag">Rights</div></a></span><span class="gmail-posted-on">27/Sep/2018</span></div></div><div class="gmail-col gmail-s12 gmail-m10 gmail-postComplete__description"><p>The
issue of undocumented immigration of Bangladeshis into Assam had
emerged as a serious political concern in the 1970s. Udayon Misra, a
reputed Assamese scholar, <a href="https://thewire.in/history/history-nrc-assam" target="_blank" rel="noopener">in a recent article in <em>The Wire</em></a>, says:</p>
<blockquote class="gmail-blurb"><p>“Quite often, people from other parts of
the country appear a bit puzzled at the emotional response of the
Assamese people to the question of identity and demographic change. This
is often seen as an expression of an insular mindset, or even as a sign
of xenophobia.”</p></blockquote>
<p>Misra points to the colonial policy of encouraging immigration of
peasants, workers, professionals and business persons from Bengal and
other parts of the Indian subcontinent into Assam during the nineteenth
and twentieth century and continuing undocumented migration of Hindus
and Muslims into Assam from former East Pakistan and present Bangladesh
as the reason for this emotional response.</p>
<p><strong>“Immigration” and identity politics</strong></p>
<p>Large scale immigration, whether legal or undocumented, is a matter
of serious social, economic and political concern. It not only changes
the size of the population and other compositions like age, sex,
language, religion, but also brings both quantitative and qualitative
changes in the socio-economic and political pattern of the host region
giving rise to friction and conflicts. While the issue of large scale
immigration into Assam was discussed at the national level,
unfortunately, it was treated essentially as a “regional” problem
created by influx of undocumented migrants from neighbouring Bangladesh.
The only solution that has ever been discussed was to “push the
undocumented immigrants out of India”. The ongoing NRC exercise is the
outcome of that singular focus on undocumented migration.</p>
<p>The singular focus on undocumented immigration obscures the fact that
the present Assamese “homeland” itself is a colonial creation and it is
much larger than the traditional home of the Assamese people, the
Brahmaputra valley. After defeating the Burmese who had occupied Assam,
the British had created the new territory of Assam by amalgamating the
existing kingdom of Jaintia, Cachar and their dependencies into Assam.
Later they added the territories of the independent tribal kingdom of
the Khasi Hills, the land of the Lotha, Ao and Angami Nagas, the Luhsai
and the Garo Hills into Assam. The Surma valley, which is separated from
the Brahmaputra valley by the Garo, Khasi, Jaintia and the Naga Hills,
consisted of the kingdom of Cachar and it was populated by Bengali
speaking people. Goalpara, which lies above the Garo hills was similarly
populated by Bengalis and was a part of Bengal for more than 200 years.</p>
<p>Apart from ignoring the fact of massive geographical expansion of
Assamese territory, and notwithstanding the demographic changes caused
by immigration, the increase in the Assamese speaking population in what
was a multi-lingual society is often not taken into account.</p>
<p>The census reports from 1911 to 1951 show that the Assamese speaking population in the British-made province of <a href="https://www.ripublication.com/ijhss16/ijhssv6n2_02.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Assam had increased from 21.7% to 56.7%</a>.
During the same period, the percentage of Bengali speaking population
declined from 45.67% to 16.5%. After independence, the number of
Assamese speakers increased to 56.59% in 1951 as compared to 31.42% in
1931. According to the census of 1951, a population of about 80 lakhs,
of which nearly 45 lakhs declared themselves to be Assamese speaking and
nearly 13 lakhs Bengali speaking.</p>
<div id="gmail-attachment_295229" style="max-width:850px" class="gmail-wp-caption gmail-aligncenter"><img class="gmail-wp-image-295229 gmail-size-large" src="https://cdn.thewire.in/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/27161049/assam-ap-1024x881.jpg" alt="" width="840" height="723"><p class="gmail-wp-caption-text">A map of Assam in 1932. Credit: Wikimedia Commons</p></div>
<p>All identities, as we know, whether national, sub-national, ethnic or
original inhabitants – are modern homogenous construct which the
proponents of identity impose from above to maintain territorial
solidarity among its people. The people who assert to be the “original
inhabitants” of a particular piece of territory lay claim on that
territory as their “homeland”. The emergence of an “ethnic” community in
Assam, which treats language as its main identity marker, particularly
in a multi religious, multi-lingual and multi-ethnic region like
Brahmaputra valley, is indeed an intriguing phenomena. This is not the
traditional ethnic community which lived in the Brahmaputra valley
before the entry of colonialism. It had evolved out of intermarriages,
social and cultural interactions between the Tai Ahom people who had
come from the frontier regions between Myanmar and Yunnan Province in
southwest China and established their rule over the Brahmaputra valley.
Tai Ahom rule lasted for nearly 600 years, during which some of the
local ethnic communities were completely subsumed in the Ahom community.</p>
<p>This linguistic ethnic community is quite distinct from traditional
Assamese ethnic community and different in character. It was constructed
by the growing Assamese middle-class in mid-19th century, to unite the
people in their struggle against the immigrant Bengali Hindu
middle-class who were occupying almost all the clerical and supervisory
jobs in the colonial administration. This is a political class, which is
using its indigenousness based on language to legitimise its group
exclusive claims on state power, rewards of the state and resources.
Most of the academics and scholars who have written on social and
political movements in colonial and post-independent Assam seem to
ignore the economic basis of Assamese linguistic politics.</p>
<p>This article is an attempt to explain the nature and the agenda of
this community from a historical perspective to show how a unilingual
ethnic identity was constructed by Assamese intellectuals of 19th
century to establish its political control and hegemony over diverse
communities in the composite province created by the British
colonialists.</p>
<p><strong>Language as the sole marker of identity</strong></p>
<p>There was no evidence of a linguistic community consciousness in
Assam prior to 1836, when Bengali was introduced as the official
language as well as the medium of instruction in schools. Assamese
language was yet to develop its grammar and script. Although it was used
in religious prayers and in conversations, it was yet to be
standardised.</p>
<p>This changed with the efforts of the American Baptists Missionaries
who had entered Assam in the 1830s to preach Christianity. Realising
that they needed to use the vernacular medium to spread Christianity,
the <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44146777?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents" target="_blank" rel="noopener">missionaries began to strongly espouse the cause of the Assamese language</a>
as the rightful medium of instruction. Apart from printing all their
religious material in Assamese, through their magazine, Nathan Brown, an
American Baptist, developed Assamese grammar, language and scripts.</p>
<div id="gmail-attachment_295233" style="max-width:165px" class="gmail-wp-caption gmail-alignleft"><img class="gmail-wp-image-295233 gmail-size-full" src="https://cdn.thewire.in/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/27161304/nathan-brown.jpg" alt="" width="155" height="300"><p class="gmail-wp-caption-text">Nathan Brown, an American Baptist, developed Assamese language, grammar and scripts. Credit: Wikimedia Commons</p></div>
<p>The efforts of the missionaries in asserting the separate identity of
the Assamese language received wholehearted support from the Assamese
intelligentsia. <em>Orunodoi</em>, a magazine published by the American
Baptists disseminated western thoughts and learning, for over twenty
years. It inspired the younger Assamese generation and paved the way for
an intellectual awakening. Faced with the growing protests, the
government revised its earlier language policy and Assamese was
reinstated as the official language in 1873.</p>
<p>With the removal of Bengali, expectedly, the language issue should
have moved lower down in the hierarchy of issues in the subsequent
stages of the ongoing ‘ethnic’ struggle. Language, however, continued to
occupy center-stage, even though it was alienating other ethnic/tribal
communities of the Brahmaputra valley, who were accepted as integral
part of the Assamese community. There is a need to explore the reasons
for the selection of language as the sole marker of Assamese identity.
The question arises, whether it was motivated purely by concerns for
language and culture or perhaps the real reasons were the concerns of
the emerging Assamese middle-class that the Bengalis were taking away a
lion’s share of the loaves and fishes?</p>
<p>Throughout the nineteenth century, Assam’s rural areas as well as the
Khasi and Jaintia hill tracts was afire with militant peasant
agitations against increasing burden of taxation on land. The peasants
organised through “<em>raij mel</em>” (peoples’ assembly). The emerging
middle-class was not a part of these uprisings. However, when it entered
the peasant movement towards the end of nineteenth century through Ryot
Sabha, the armed uprising were replaced by “petitions” and the
peasantry gradually began to toe moderate reformist ideas of the
middle-class leadership. It clearly diverted the mounting anger of the
rural masses against the British for imposition of high taxation on land
and farm produce to middle-class concerns regarding assault on language
and culture. Having established its control over the peasantry, the
Assamese middle class, gradually established itself as the most dominant
class – a position it holds till date. In their efforts to maintain
their hold over the masses and the peripheral communities, the Assamese
middle classes used “language” as a hegemonic instrument.</p>
<p><strong>The colonial construction of composite Assam province</strong></p>
<p>As I have pointed out earlier, what is known as Assam today, is
essentially a colonial creation. The British created Assam as a Chief
Commissioner’s province in 1874. It was a composite of two valleys – the
Brahmaputra Valley and the Surma Valley. The former was dominated by
Assamese speaking people and the later had an overwhelming majority of
Bengali speaking people. Brahmaputra valley had a Hindu majority whereas
the Surma valley was a mix of Hindu and Muslims.</p>
<p>According to Amlendu Guha(<em>Planter Raj to Swaraj</em>, 1977), “the
term Assam proper, i.e., the erstwhile Ahom territory alone – and later
for the entire Brahmaputra valley that was under a common
Commissionership, that was now given a wider significance to denote the
newly emerged province”. According to the census report of 1881-82, the
population of Brahmaputra valley was about 1.8 million whereas the Surma
valley’s population was nearly 2.1 million. There were practically no
Assamese speaking persons in the two districts of the Surma Valley,
where as in Goalpara district of the Brahmaputra Valley, the majority,
according to early census figures, spoke Bengali. At the time of
inclusion of Sylhet into Assam province, the Hindus and Muslims of
Sylhet were opposed to its inclusion. The resentment against this
inclusion continued to be articulated by the people of Sylhet in all
social and political forums. In 1947, at the time of partition, Sylhet
was incorporated into East Pakistan after a referendum.</p>
<p>It was the colonial state’s policy of encouraging immigration into
Assam from neighbouring Bengal and then by imposing Bengali as the
official language that spurred the growth of community consciousness
among the Assamese in the Brahmaputra valley. The nineteenth century
immigrants in Assam may be classified into four groups: (1) tea garden
labourers (2) migrants from East Bengal prior to independence (3) Hindus
who came as a result of migration, and (4) Nepalese who came in search
of livelihood.</p>
<p>Amalendu Guha points out that of these immigrants, the Nepalese and
the tea garden labourers did not compete with the natives for jobs, a
factor, which rendered them more acceptable to the local people. The
immigrant Bengali Muslims also did not pose much problem to the
indigenous Assamese people in the field of employment in the government
sector because of their interest in getting land in the fertile valley
and by offering their cheap labour in the struggle for survival. The
immigrant Bengali Muslims had declared Assamese as their mother-tongue.</p>
<div id="gmail-attachment_82690" style="max-width:810px" class="gmail-wp-caption gmail-aligncenter"><img class="gmail-wp-image-82690 gmail-size-full" src="https://thewire.in/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/tea-garden_reuters.jpg" alt="Tea garden workers in Assam. Credit: Reuters" width="800" height="450"><p class="gmail-wp-caption-text">The
Nepalese and the tea garden labourers did not compete with the natives
for jobs, a factor, which rendered them more acceptable to the local
people. Credit: Reuters</p></div>
<p>The case of the Bengali Hindu immigrant was, however, different. The
British required the services of “native” bureaucrats to run the
administration. The British had found it convenient to recruit educated
Bengalis as clerks, supervisors, overseers and tax collectors as the
Bengalis were acquainted with the British administrative method. The
Bengali Hindus were disliked by the emerging Assamese middle class as
they dominated the local bureaucracy and had the lion’s share of the
government jobs.</p>
<p><strong>The threat of the Bengali</strong></p>
<p>Hiren Gohain describes the <a href="https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/000349672" target="_blank" rel="noopener">chauvinistic attitude of a section of the Bengali community in Assam</a>
as the reason for the resentment. Gohain is not the only author who
blames the Bengali settlers in Assam. Sajal Nag, Apurba Baruah and
several authors have prioritised “Bengali chauvinism” as the key factor
that antagonised the Assamese and contributed to the growth of community
consciousness among them. The population imbalance and limited access
to economic development had given rise to valley-ism in Assam promoting
competitive identities of Assamese and Bengali. As Guha points out, it
was a cleverly designed policy of divide and rule, “maintaining the
balance of loaves and fishes – not power certainly, between the two
rival valleys, jealous of each other”.</p>
<p>In his book on middle class politics in Assam, Apurb Baruah in his book <em>Social Tensions in Assam: Middle Class Politics</em>
(1991) blames the “elite of the Bengali society and their patrons in
Bengal” not only for the imposition of the Bengali language on Assam,
but also for the growth of anti-Bengali sentiments among the local
people. Apurb Baruah rejects the role of economic factors as stimuli. He
does not substantiate what kind of a role the Bengali elite had played
in influencing the official opinion. All accounts of colonial history
show that the colonial state selectively accepted ideas and interpreted
them to suit their imperial interests.</p>
<p>In <em>India Against Itself, Assam</em>, Sanjib Baruah suggests that
it was the “colonial geography’’ that shaped “the projects of people
hood in Assam- the Assamese sub-national narrative and the
counter-narratives as well as the political agendas that followed from
these narratives”. He points out that the colonial policy of encouraging
large scale immigration from Bengal to Assam, as well as the way the
boundaries of Assam were drawn up which included the Bengali dominated
Surma valley, had produced a demographic imbalance that kept Assam’s
language question a highly controversial one throughout the entire
colonial period and beyond. According to Sanjib Baruah, the language
movement continued primarily because of the inclusion of Sylhet. While
referring to the considerable opposition to immigration, Sanjib Baruah
also talks about the willingness of sections of Assamese middle-class to
co-opt all those who agreed to accepted Assamese language and Assamese
culture.</p>
<p>History of Assam indicates that while language was one parameter, the
second and equally important marker was Vainashvi Hinduism. Udyon Misra
in <em>The Transformation of Assamese Identity: A Historical Survey</em>,
points out that beneath all the 19th century rhetoric about a
multi-cultural identity was the firm belief that the Assamese identity
was not an inclusive one. The Hindu religious underpinnings of the
Assamese community are, in fact, impossible to overlook as Misra asserts
that, “An influential section of the Assamese intelligentsia who
stressed the poly-ethnic nature of Assamese society, at the same time
felt that it was the Hindu, and particularly the Vaishnavite faith,
which served as the main cementing force of Assamese society.”</p>
<p>If Vaishnava Hinduism was so important to the people, why this was
ignored in the 19th century as a marker of Assamese identity remains
unanswered. Also the question that needs to be asked is whether the
willingness to accept immigrants, particularly Assamese-speaking Bengali
Muslims, as part of the Assamese community led to the transformation of
the Vaishnavite Hindu identity of the Assamese community?</p>
<p><strong>Privileging language over other markers of ethnic identity</strong></p>
<p>The problem with identity arose due to the incongruity between the
aspiration of the ethnic Assamese to make Assam their “national
homeland” and the historically developed multi-ethnic social base of
territorial Assam of today. The selection of language as the main marker
of Assamese identity by Assamese intellectuals of 19th and 20th century
over other traditional markers of ethnicity was aimed at transforming
both the Assamese community as well as the other communities that lived
on the extended territory, to create a unilingual community in order to
retain its control over the new provincial territory. As the Sylheti
could not be subdued, Assamese intellectuals and politicians campaigned
for exclusion of Sylhet from Assam and were happy when at the time of
the partition in 1947, it was transferred to East Pakistan.</p>
<div id="gmail-attachment_295237" style="max-width:260px" class="gmail-wp-caption gmail-alignright"><img class="gmail-wp-image-295237 gmail-size-full" src="https://cdn.thewire.in/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/27161857/sylhet.png" alt="" width="250" height="349"><p class="gmail-wp-caption-text">Assamese
intellectuals and politicians campaigned for exclusion of Sylhet from
Assam and were happy when at the time of the partition in 1947, it was
transferred to East Pakistan. Credit: Wikimedia Commons</p></div>
<p>Sanjib Baruah acknowledges that Bengalis, Hindus and Muslims were not
averse to becoming part of the Assamese cultural mainstream. It is
evident from the 150% increase in the Assamese speaking population and
nearly 200% decline in the Bengali speaking population during the four
decades from 1911 to 1951, that a large section of Bengalis had adopted
Assamese as their main language. Yet the problem has continued. It would
seem that the dominance of Bengali speaking people in the Surma valley
continue to pose a threat to the project of making Assam as the national
homeland of the Assamese people. This explains the violent “Bongal
Kheda”, the organised campaign of ethnic cleansing of the Bengalis which
began in the 1960 and continues till date. The Bengali, particularly
the Bengali Hindu, has become the “other”, the “outsider” who was the
cause of all the troubles.</p>
<p><strong>Conclusion</strong></p>
<p>The attempt to convert Assam into a monolingual state through the
controversial Official Language Act, 1960, the six-year long AASU
agitation culminating in the inking of the Assam Accord in 1985, which
successfully curbed the domicile rights of a large number of Bengali
settlers in the State, and the current NRC update process – all these
have found unstinted approval of the Assamese cognoscenti.</p>
<p>Since the 1980’s, the very definition of the “illegal foreign
immigrant”, has undergone many changes. The Assam agitation, at its
inception in the year 1978, was a movement against all foreigners
staying in Assam. Within a year, it had become a movement for “driving
out” all so called illegal immigrants – the Bengali speaking Hindus,
Muslims and Nepalese, all were targeted. However, in 1981-82, the
perception about foreigners changed again and only the Bengali origin
Muslims of Assam were targeted as Bangladeshi infiltrators. Though the
Assam agitation was started against the undocumented migrants, over the
time, it become violent and morphed into a communal movement with
anti-Muslim bias. The so-called Assam Accord of 1985 did not end Assam
agitation. It has continued under different garbs and continued killing
of Bengali Muslims and members of other minority communities.</p>
<p>It has scarred the mind of the Assamese youth and deeply affected
modes of social exchange. The denial of humanity to the “other” has
sprung from this exchange. Even after the completion of the NRC process
and rendering the detected non-citizens as “stateless persons”, without
any rights to participate in politics of Assam, the problem will not be
solved. As long as the agenda of establishing total hegemonic control
over all communities and the entire territory of Assam is not achieved,
the so-called “emotional” outbursts against the threat to Assam’s
“linguistic and cultural identity” will happen again and again.</p>
<p><em>Tapan Kumar Bose is associated with the South Asia Forum for Human Rights.</em></p></div></div></div>
<br clear="all"><br>-- <br><div dir="ltr" class="gmail_signature" data-smartmail="gmail_signature">=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+<br><br> Harold F. Schiffman<br><br>Professor Emeritus of <br> Dravidian Linguistics and Culture <br>Dept. of South Asia Studies <br>University of Pennsylvania<br>Philadelphia, PA 19104-6305<br><br>Phone: (215) 898-7475<br>Fax: (215) 573-2138 <br><br>Email: <a href="mailto:haroldfs@gmail.com" target="_blank">haroldfs@gmail.com</a><br><a href="http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~haroldfs/" target="_blank">http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~haroldfs/</a> <br><br>-------------------------------------------------</div></div>