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<p class="MsoNormal">I agree entirely with Jan on the need to
distinguish
semantic categories and formal categories. In fact, in a paper
of mine that is
I have nearly completed revising, I have an entire section
arguing that
generative approaches fail to note the fact that a given
semantic category
often has many different formal expressions over different
languages and that
this is problematic for implicit assumptions that equate
semantic categories
with formal categories.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">But Jan seems to think that this presents
some sort of
problem for the work I have done in word order typology.<span
style="mso-spacerun:yes"> </span>He says “<span
style="mso-bidi-font-size:
10.0pt;font-family:Times;mso-bidi-font-family:Arial;color:black;mso-ansi-language:
UZ-CYR;mso-fareast-language:EN-US" lang="UZ-CYR">When these
authors subsequently formulate
rules and principles on the basis of the data they collected,
the semantic
category labels (Adjective, Genitive, Relative Clause, but
also e.g. Demonstrative
and Numeral) appear to stand for <u>formal</u> categories,
i.e. categories
whose members are defined on the basis of structural or
morphosyntactic
criteria</span>”. But this is false. They stand for semantic
categories.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Jan seems to think that it is somehow a
problem that a given
semantic category may have many different formal realizations
across different
languages. However, neither in his email nor in his 2009 paper
in LT does he
explain why he sees this as a problem.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">There is, I admit, a <i
style="mso-bidi-font-style:normal">potential</i>
problem.<span style="mso-spacerun:yes"> </span>Namely, it
might be the case
that for the purposes of word order correlations, the syntactic
realization of
a semantic category makes a major difference and that lumping
the different
syntactic realizations together is obscuring these differences.
That is why I
have spent considerable time over the years collecting data, not
only on word
order in particular languages, but also on the syntactic
realization in these
languages, precisely to examine empirically whether the
syntactic realization
makes a difference. The result is that while the syntactic
realization
sometimes makes a small difference, it is overall irrelevant: by
and large,
generalizations over semantic categories apply the same,
regardless of the
syntactic realization.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
<span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New
Roman";mso-fareast-font-family:
"ＭＳ
明朝";mso-ansi-language:EN-US;mso-fareast-language:JA;mso-bidi-
language:AR-SA">Matthew</span>
<br>
<br>
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<![endif]--><!--StartFragment--><!--EndFragment-->On 1/18/16 4:41 AM,
Jan Rijkhoff wrote:<br>
</div>
<blockquote
cite="mid:EBCB141063E9C040A28A5B906370F04851453991@SRVUNIMBX05.uni.au.dk"
type="cite">
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops:65.2pt">I think the last
word has not been said about Greenbergian word order
correlations, mainly because semantic categories and formal
categories have not always been clearly distinguished in
post-Greenberg (1963) word order studies (Rijkhoff 2009a).*
For example, both Hawkins (1983: 12) and Dryer (1992: 120)
claimed that they followed Greenberg (1963: 74) in ‘basically
applying semantic criteria’ to identify members of the same
category across languages, but in practice these semantically
defined forms and constructions are treated as formal
entities.
</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops:65.2pt"> </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops:65.2pt">If Hawkins and
Dryer applied semantic criteria in their cross-linguistic
studies, this implies, for example, that their semantic
category Adjective must also have included verbal and nominal
expressions of adjectival notions (such as relative clauses
and genitives), which are typically used in languages that
lack a dedicated class of adjectives:</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops:65.2pt"> </p>
<p class="MsoNormal"
style="tab-stops:65.2pt;mso-layout-grid-align:none;
text-autospace:none">
<u><span style="mso-no-proof:yes">Kiribati </span></u><span
style="mso-no-proof:yes">(Ross 1998: 90)</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"
style="tab-stops:65.2pt;mso-layout-grid-align:none;
text-autospace:none">
<span style="mso-no-proof:yes">(1)<i> </i><i
style="mso-bidi-font-style:normal">te<span
style="mso-tab-count:2">
</span>uee<span style="mso-tab-count:2"> </span>ae<span
style="mso-tab-count:2">
</span>e<span style="mso-tab-count:2"> </span>tikiraoi</i><span
style="mso-tab-count:4">
</span>(relative clause)</span><span
style="mso-bidi-font-family:"American Typewriter";
mso-no-proof:yes"></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"
style="tab-stops:65.2pt;mso-layout-grid-align:none;
text-autospace:none">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family:"American
Typewriter";
font-variant:small-caps;mso-no-proof:yes"><span
style="mso-tab-count:2">
</span>art<span style="mso-tab-count:1"> </span></span><span
style="mso-bidi-font-family:
"American Typewriter";mso-no-proof:yes">flower
<span style="font-variant:small-caps">rel </span>3<span
style="font-variant:small-caps">sg.s
<span style="mso-tab-count:2"></span></span>be.pretty<span
style="mso-tab-count:1">
</span></span><span style="mso-no-proof:yes"></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"
style="tab-stops:65.2pt;mso-layout-grid-align:none;
text-autospace:none">
<span style="mso-no-proof:yes"><span style="mso-tab-count:
2"> </span>‘a pretty flower’ (lit. ‘a flower that
pretties’)<span style="mso-tab-count:1">
</span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"
style="tab-stops:65.2pt;mso-layout-grid-align:none;
text-autospace:none">
<span style="mso-no-proof:yes"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops:65.2pt"><u><span
style="mso-no-proof:yes">Makwe</span></u><span
style="mso-no-proof:yes"> (Devos 2008: 136)</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops:65.2pt"><span
style="mso-no-proof:yes">(2)<span style="mso-tab-count:1"></span><i
style="mso-bidi-font-style:
normal"> muú-nu<span style="mso-tab-count:3">
</span>w-á=ki-búúli</i><span style="mso-tab-count:6">
</span>(genitive)</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops:65.2pt"><span
style="mso-no-proof:yes"><span style="mso-tab-count:2">
</span><span style="font-variant:small-caps">nc1</span>-person
<span style="font-variant:small-caps">
pp1-gen=nc7</span>-silence</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops:65.2pt"><span
style="mso-no-proof:yes"> ‘a silent person’ (lit. ‘person
of silence’)</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops:65.2pt"> </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops:65.2pt">Relative Clause
and Genitive are, however, also semantic categories in their
own right in word order studies by Dryer and Hawkins.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops:65.2pt"> </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops:65.2pt">When these authors
subsequently formulate rules and principles on the basis of
the data they collected, the semantic category labels
(Adjective, Genitive, Relative Clause, but also e.g.
Demonstrative and Numeral) appear to stand for <u>formal</u>
categories, i.e. categories whose members are defined on the
basis of structural or morphosyntactic criteria. This apparent
change of category is not explained, but can be seen in the
case of the ‘Heaviness Serialization Principle’ (Hawkins 1983:
90-91) and the ‘Branching Direction Theory’ (Dryer 1992).</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops:65.2pt"> </p>
<p class="MsoNormal"
style="margin-right:13.75pt;tab-stops:65.2pt;mso-layout-grid-align:
none;text-autospace:none">
Hawkins defined ‘heaviness’ in terms of such non-semantic
criteria as (a) length and quantity of morphemes, (b) quantity
of words, (c) syntactic depth of branching nodes, and (d)
inclusion of dominated constituents.
</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"
style="margin-right:13.75pt;tab-stops:65.2pt;mso-layout-grid-align:
none;text-autospace:none">
</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"
style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;
mso-pagination:widow-orphan
lines-together;page-break-after:avoid;tab-stops:
65.2pt;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none">
<span style="mso-ansi-language:EN-GB" lang="EN-GB">(3)<span
style="mso-tab-count:2"><i>
</i></span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style:normal">Heaviness
Serialization Principle</i></span><span
style="mso-ansi-language:EN-GB" lang="EN-GB"><span
style="mso-tab-count:2">:
</span>Rel<span style="mso-spacerun:yes"> </span>≥<sub>R</sub><span
style="mso-spacerun:yes">
</span>Gen<span style="mso-spacerun:yes"> </span>≥<sub>R</sub><span
style="mso-spacerun:yes">
</span>A<span style="mso-spacerun:yes"> </span>≥<sub>R </sub><span
style="mso-spacerun:yes"> </span>Dem/Num</span>
</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"
style="margin-right:13.75pt;tab-stops:65.2pt;mso-layout-grid-align:
none;text-autospace:none">
</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"
style="margin-right:13.75pt;tab-stops:65.2pt;mso-layout-grid-align:
none;text-autospace:none">
Thus a member of the (semantic? formal?) category Relative
Clause is ‘heavier’ than a member of the (semantic? formal?)
category Adjective. But Hawkins’s semantic category Adjective
must also have included members of the ‘heavy’ formal
categories Genitive and Relative Clause (see (1) and (2)
above). It is not clear whether the original members of the
single semantic category Adjective were later ‘re-categorized’
and distributed over the formal categories Adjective, Genitive
and Relative Clause in the
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style:
normal"><span style="mso-ansi-language:EN-GB" lang="EN-GB">Heaviness
Serialization Principle</span></i>.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"
style="margin-right:13.75pt;tab-stops:65.2pt;mso-layout-grid-align:
none;text-autospace:none">
</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops:65.2pt">Dryer’s ‘Branching
Direction Theory’ refers to a structural feature of the
internal syntactic organization of a constituent. According to
the ‘Branching Direction Theory’, relative clauses and
genitives are phrases, i.e. members of a branching category,
whose position relative to the noun correlates with the
relative order of Verb and Object, whereas adjectives are
non-branching elements, whose position relative to the noun
does not correlate with OV or VO order (Dryer 1992: 107-8,
110-1). In this case, too, one may assume that the semantic
category Adjective also included members of the formal
categories Genitive and Relative Clause (see examples above).
Again we do not know what happened to the branching/phrasal
members of the erstwhile(?) semantic category Adjective
(relative clauses, genitives) when this category was turned
into the formal (non-branching) category Adjective that is
part of the ‘Branching Direction Theory’.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops:65.2pt"> </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops:65.2pt">So as to avoid
categorial confusion in cross-linguistic research (and so as
to make it possible to produce more reliable results), it is
necessary to keep formal and semantic categories apart, as
members of these two categories have their own ordering rules
or preferences. I also think it is an illusion to think we can
give a satisfactory account of the grammatical behaviour of
linguistic units -including word order- without taking into
consideration functional (interpersonal) categories or
‘discourse units’ (Rijkhoff 2009b, 2015). </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops:65.2pt"> </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops:65.2pt">* Greenberg (1963:
88) made it clear that he sometimes used formal criteria to
remove certain members of a semantic category before he
formulated a universal, as in the case of his Universal 22.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops:65.2pt"> </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops:65.2pt"><font size="2"><b
style="mso-bidi-font-weight:
normal">References</b></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops:65.2pt"><font size="2"><span
style="mso-no-proof:yes">Devos, M. 2008.
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style:normal">A Grammar of Makwe</i>.
München: Lincom Europa.</span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops:65.2pt"><font size="2"><span
style="mso-fareast-language:
JA">Dryer, M. S., 1992. The Greenbergian word order
correlations.
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style:normal">Language</i> 68-1,
81-138.</span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"
style="margin-left:14.2pt;text-indent:-14.2pt"><font size="2"><span
style="mso-fareast-language:JA">Greenberg, J. H. 1963.
Some universals of grammar with particular reference to
the order of meaningful elements. In J. H. Greenberg
(ed.),
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style:normal">Universals of
Language</i>, 73-113. Cambridge MA: MIT.</span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"
style="margin-left:14.2pt;text-indent:-14.2pt;tab-stops:
65.2pt">
<font size="2"><span style="mso-fareast-language:JA">Hawkins,
J. A., 1983. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style:normal">
Word Order Universals: Quantitative analyses of
linguistic structure</i>. New York: Academic Press.</span></font></p>
<p
style="margin-left:14.2pt;text-indent:-14.2pt;mso-pagination:none;
tab-stops:65.2pt">
<font size="2"><span
style="mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times
New Roman";
mso-bidi-font-family:AdvP497E2;mso-bidi-language:EN-US">Rijkhoff,
J. 2009a.
</span><span
style="mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times
New Roman"">On the (un)suitability of semantic
categories.
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style:normal">Linguistic Typology</i>
13-1, 95‑104.</span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"
style="margin-left:14.2pt;text-indent:-14.2pt;mso-pagination:
none;tab-stops:65.2pt;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none">
<font size="2"><span
style="mso-bidi-font-size:8.0pt;mso-bidi-font-family:AdvP497E2;mso-bidi-language:EN-US">Rijkhoff,
Jan. 2009b.
</span>On the co-variation between form and function of
adnominal possessive modifiers in Dutch and English.
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size:8.0pt">In William B.
McGregor (ed.), <i style="mso-bidi-font-style:normal">
The Expression of Possession</i> (</span>The Expression
of Cognitive Categories [ECC] 2),<span
style="mso-bidi-font-size:
8.0pt"> 51‑106. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter.</span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"
style="margin-left:14.2pt;text-indent:-14.2pt;mso-pagination:
none;tab-stops:65.2pt;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none">
<font size="2"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family:⁄ê∏Ôˇølæ—">Rijkhoff,
J. 2015. Word order. In James D. Wright (editor-in-chief),
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style:normal">International
Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences
(Second Edition)</i>, Vol. 25, 644–656. Oxford:
Elsevier.</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family:Calibri;
color:black"></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"
style="margin-left:14.2pt;text-indent:-14.2pt;tab-stops:
65.2pt">
<font size="2"><span class="p-match">Ross, M. 1998.
Proto-Oceanic adjectival categories and their
morphosyntax.
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style:normal">Oceanic Linguistics</i>
37-1, 85-119.</span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"
style="margin-left:14.2pt;text-indent:-14.2pt;tab-stops:
65.2pt">
<span class="p-match"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"
style="margin-left:14.2pt;text-indent:-14.2pt;tab-stops:
65.2pt">
<span class="p-match">Jan Rijkhoff</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops:65.2pt"> </p>
<div>
<div style="font-family:Tahoma; font-size:13px">
<div style="font-family:Tahoma; font-size:13px">
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div style="font-family: Times New Roman; color: #000000;
font-size: 16px">
<hr tabindex="-1">
<div style="direction: ltr;" id="divRpF867311"><font
face="Tahoma" color="#000000" size="2"><b>From:</b>
Lingtyp [<a class="moz-txt-link-abbreviated" href="mailto:lingtyp-bounces@listserv.linguistlist.org">lingtyp-bounces@listserv.linguistlist.org</a>] on
behalf of Alan Rumsey [<a class="moz-txt-link-abbreviated" href="mailto:Alan.Rumsey@anu.edu.au">Alan.Rumsey@anu.edu.au</a>]<br>
<b>Sent:</b> Monday, January 18, 2016 12:23 PM<br>
<b>To:</b> <a class="moz-txt-link-abbreviated" href="mailto:lingtyp@listserv.linguistlist.org">lingtyp@listserv.linguistlist.org</a><br>
<b>Subject:</b> Re: [Lingtyp] Structural congruence as a
dimension of language complexity/simplicity<br>
</font><br>
</div>
<div><span id="OLK_SRC_BODY_SECTION" style="color:rgb(0,0,0)">
<div bgcolor="#FFFFFF">Many thanks to all of you who
responded to my posting on this topic, both online and
off. All the readings you have pointed me to have indeed
been highly relevant and very useful, including an
excellent recent publication by Jennifer Culbertson that
she pointed me to in her offline response, at <a
moz-do-not-send="true"
href="redir.aspx?REF=sGl5RomnpE-BF3Bt1foWHNs4EZ9sLFpNokQs5Y0pxDO6ZjPcAyDTCAFodHRwOi8vam91cm5hbC5mcm9udGllcnNpbi5vcmcvYXJ0aWNsZS8xMC4zMzg5L2Zwc3lnLjIwMTUuMDE5NjQvYWJzdHJhY3Q."
target="_blank"><a class="moz-txt-link-freetext" href="http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01964/abstract">http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01964/abstract</a></a></div>
</span>
<div style="color:rgb(0,0,0)"><br>
</div>
<div style="color:rgb(0,0,0)">Thanks especially to Matthew
Dryer for pointing out that the Greenbergian ‘universal’ I
had used as an example – the putative association between
VSO and noun-adjective order — had been falsified by his
much more thorough 1992 study <span
style="background-color:rgb(255,255,255)">“The
Greenbergian Word Order Correlations”. My reading of
that article and further correspondence with him has
confirmed that, by contrast, Greenberg’s universals no 3
and 4 were solidly confirmed by his study, namely that
SOV </span>languages are far more likely to have
postpositions than prepositions and that the reverse is
true for VSO languages. </div>
<div style="color:rgb(0,0,0)"><br>
</div>
<div>Drawing on all your suggestions, Francesca and I have
now finished a draft of the paper referred to in my
posting, called '<span style="text-align:center"><span
lang="EN-US">Structural Congruence as a Dimension of
Language Complexity: </span></span><span lang="EN-US">An
Example from Ku Waru Child Language’.<b> </b></span>If
any of you would like to read it please let me know
and I’ll send it to you.</div>
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<div>Alan</div>
</div>
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