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<p class="MsoNormal">Mattis List and Balthasar Bickel rightly
emphasize that
“word” is not a Platonic entity (a natural kind) that exists in
advance of
language learning or linguistic analysis – few linguists would
disagree here,
not even generativists (who otherwise liberally assume
natural-kind catgeories).<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">But I think many linguists still ACT AS IF
there were such a
natural kind, because the “word” notion is a crucial ingredient to
a number of
other notions that linguists use routinely – e.g. “gender”, which
is typically
defined in terms of “agreement” (which is defined in terms of
inflectional
marking on targets; and inflection is defined in terms of “word”).<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">So is it possible to define a comparative
concept ‘word’
that applies to all languages equally, and that accords reasonably
with our
stereotypes? Note that I didn’t deny this in my 2011 paper, I just
said that
nobody had come up with a satisfactory definition (that could be
used, for
instance, in defining “gender” or “polysynthesis”). So I’ll be
happy to
contribute to a discussion on how to make progress on defining
“word”.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Larry Hyman notes that other notions like
“syllable” and
“sentence” are also problematic in that they also “leak”. However,
I think it
is important to distinguish two situations of “slipperiness”:<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">(1) “Leakage” of definitions due to vague
defining notions<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">(2) Incoherence of definitions due to the use
of different
criteria in different languages<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">The first can be addressed by tightening the
defining
notions, but the second is fatal.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">To take up Östen Dahl’s example of the “family”
notion: In
one culture, a family might be said to be a set of minimally three
living
people consisting of two adults (regardless of gender) living in a
romantic
relationship plus all their descendants. In another culture, a
family might be
defined as a married couple consisting of a man and a woman plus
all their
living direct ancestors, all their (great) uncles and (great)
aunts, and all
the descendants of all of these.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">With two family concepts as different as these,
it is
obviously not very interesting to ask general cross-cultural
questions about
“families” (e.g. “How often do all family members have meals
together?”). So
the use of different criteria for different cultures is fatal
here.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">What I find worrying is that linguists often
seem to accept
incoherent definitions of comparative concepts (this was
emphasized especially
in my 2015 paper on defining vs. diagnosing categories). Different
diagnostics
in different languages would not be fatal if “word” were a
Platonic (natural-kind)
concept, but if we are not born with a “word” category,
typologists need to use
the SAME criteria for all languages.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">So here’s a proposal for defining a notion of
“simple
morphosyntactic word”:<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight:normal">A simple
morphosyntactic word is a form that consists of (minimally) a
root, plus any
affixes.<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Here’s a proposal for defining a notion of
“affix”, in such
a way that the results do not go too much against our intuitions
or stereotypes:<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight:normal">An affix
is a bound
form that always occurs together with a root of the same
root-class and is
never separated from the root by a free form or a non-affixal
bound form.<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">These definitions make use of the notions of
“root” and
“root-class” (defined in Haspelmath 2012) and<span
style="mso-spacerun:yes">
</span>“bound (form)” vs. “free (form)” (defined in Haspelmath
2013). All these
show leakage as in (1) above, but they are equally applicable to
all languages,
so they are not incoherent. (I thank Harald Hammarström for a
helpful
discussion that helped me to come up with the above definitions,
which I had not
envisaged in 2011.)<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">(What I don’t know at the moment is how to
relate “simple
morphosyntactic word” to “morphosyntactic word” in general,
because I cannot distinguish compounds from phrases comparatively;
and I don’t know
what to do with “phonological word”.)<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Crucially, the definitions above make use of a
number of basic
concepts that apply to ALL languages in the SAME way. David Gil’s
proposal, to
measure “bond strength” by means of a range of language-particular
phenomena,
falls short of this requirement (as already hinted by Eitan
Grossman). Note
that the problem I have with David’s proposal is not that it
provides no
categorical contrasts (recall my acceptance of vagueness in (1)
above), but
that there is no way of telling which phenomena should count as
measuring bond
strength.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">David’s approach resembles Keenan’s (1976)
attempt at
defining “subject” (perhaps not by accident, because Ed Keenan was
David’s PhD
supervisor), but I have a similar objection to Keenan: If
different criteria
are used for different languages, how do we know that we are
measuring the same
phenomenon across languages? Measuring X by means of Y makes sense
only if we
know independently that X and Y are very highly correlated. But do
we know
this, for subjects, or for bond strength?<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Best,<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Martin<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
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<pre class="moz-signature" cols="72">--
Martin Haspelmath (<a class="moz-txt-link-abbreviated" href="mailto:haspelmath@shh.mpg.de">haspelmath@shh.mpg.de</a>)
Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History
Kahlaische Strasse 10
D-07745 Jena
&
Leipzig University
IPF 141199
Nikolaistrasse 6-10
D-04109 Leipzig
</pre>
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