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<p>In response to the latest posting by Johanna, I think there is
widespread agreement that the meanings of words exhibit the kind
of internal structuring that is usefully represented in terms of
prototypes. But this does not preclude the need for adequate
descriptions of what is included — protypically, less
prototypically, marginally, or not at all — in the extension of
words such as "animal" and its putative counterparts across
languages. And questionnaires have proven to be a useful tool for
gathering this kind of data — it's quite easy to formulate a
questionnaire in such a way that it will elicit judgements of
prototypicality (as opposed to categorical "black-and-white"
judgements).</p>
<br>
<div class="moz-cite-prefix">On 15/10/2018 14:49, Johanna Laakso
wrote:<br>
</div>
<blockquote type="cite"
cite="mid:365A533A-A1E5-456E-A5C6-7354447FE81E@univie.ac.at">
<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8">
Dear All,
<div class=""><br class="">
</div>
<div class="">to be honest, I don't believe that languages
function with clear categories for concepts like "animal". More
probably, there is something like a prototypical "core" for
"animalness" (or many of them, if there are many categories
corresponding to "animal"), surrounded by grey zones and
depending on contexts, styles, subcultures, etc.</div>
<div class=""><br class="">
</div>
<div class="">My own anecdotal experience (which first caught my
attention years ago, when working on a translation job): in
Estonian, "loomad ja linnud" (‘animals and birds’, implying that
‘birds’ are a category distinct from ‘animals’) seems to be a
pretty frequent expression (more than 60,000 Google hits). As a
native speaker of Finnish, I find the Finnish equivalent
expression, "eläimet ja linnut", less natural or not as
idiomatic and acceptable as the Estonian one; it does occur but
clearly less frequently than in Estonian (13,700 Google hits),
and according to my intuition, the Finnish ‘bird’ is a
borderline case – birds might be "animals" or "not-animals",
depending on context and use. I'm also pretty sure that many
other Finnish speakers might see this differently.</div>
<div class=""><br class="">
</div>
<div class="">Therefore, I have great doubts concerning the use of
questionnaires for gathering data. Or, at least, the
questionnaire should be very carefully planned, to accommodate
vagueness and fuzzy or overlapping categories.</div>
<div class=""><br class="">
</div>
<div class="">Best</div>
<div class="">Johanna</div>
<div class=""><br class="">
</div>
<div class="">PS. Note also that terms for animals in many
languages are greatly affected by taboos. And that the term
‘animal’ in itself is often a derivative (Finnish eläin =
"living thing", Estonian loom = "creature", Hungarian állat =
"standing thing") or a result of semantic extension or
specification (cf. German "Tier" and its Scandinavian cognates
with English "deer", or the fact that Hungarian "állat" a few
centuries ago had a more general meaning, something like
"entity" or "being") and that these developments might be
connected to cultural changes.<br class="">
<div class="">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="border-collapse:
separate; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: Helvetica;
font-style: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal;
font-variant-position: normal; font-variant-caps: normal;
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none; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px;">
<div style="word-wrap: break-word; -webkit-nbsp-mode: space;
-webkit-line-break: after-white-space;" class=""><span
class="Apple-style-span" style="border-collapse:
separate; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: Helvetica;
font-style: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal;
font-variant-position: normal; font-variant-caps:
normal; font-variant-numeric: normal;
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normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px; border-spacing:
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-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px;">
<div style="word-wrap: break-word; -webkit-nbsp-mode:
space; -webkit-line-break: after-white-space;"
class="">
<div class="">--</div>
<div class="">Univ.Prof. Dr. Johanna Laakso</div>
<div class="">Universität Wien, Institut für
Europäische und Vergleichende Sprach- und
Literaturwissenschaft (EVSL)</div>
<div class="">Abteilung Finno-Ugristik</div>
<div class="">Campus AAKH Spitalgasse 2-4 Hof 7</div>
<div class="">A-1090 Wien</div>
<div class=""><a
href="mailto:johanna.laakso@univie.ac.at" class=""
moz-do-not-send="true">johanna.laakso@univie.ac.at</a>
• <a
href="http://homepage.univie.ac.at/Johanna.Laakso/"
class="" moz-do-not-send="true">http://homepage.univie.ac.at/Johanna.Laakso/</a></div>
<div class="">Project ELDIA: <a
href="http://www.eldia-project.org/" class=""
moz-do-not-send="true">http://www.eldia-project.org/</a> </div>
<div class=""><br class="">
</div>
</div>
</span><br class="Apple-interchange-newline">
</div>
</span><br class="Apple-interchange-newline">
<br class="Apple-interchange-newline">
</div>
<br class="">
<div>
<blockquote type="cite" class="">
<div class="">Hedvig Skirgård <<a
href="mailto:hedvig.skirgard@gmail.com" class=""
moz-do-not-send="true">hedvig.skirgard@gmail.com</a>>
kirjoitti 15.10.2018 kello 13.55:</div>
<br class="Apple-interchange-newline">
<div class="">
<div dir="ltr" class="">Dear everyone,
<div class=""><br class="">
</div>
<div class="">Queries like one David posed are often
improved via more systematic data collection using a
form. I suggested Google Forms because it's one of the
most user friendly and familiar interfaces out there
where David could set up a questionnaire and collect
data on people's usage of words in their respective
language, and also get systematic data on exactly what
language they speaks.</div>
<div class=""><br class="">
</div>
<div class="">I'm not going to set this up for anyone
else or compile the information in this thread, I'm
merely suggesting that it a Google Form may be a
productive way of going about this. <br class=""
clear="all">
<div class="">
<div dir="ltr" class="gmail_signature"
data-smartmail="gmail_signature">
<div dir="ltr" class="">
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<div dir="ltr" class="">Den mån 15 okt. 2018 kl 22:50
skrev Assibi Apatewon Amidu <<a
href="mailto:assibi.amidu@ntnu.no" class=""
moz-do-not-send="true">assibi.amidu@ntnu.no</a>>:<br
class="">
</div>
<blockquote class="gmail_quote" style="margin:0 0 0
.8ex;border-left:1px #ccc solid;padding-left:1ex">
<div style="word-wrap:break-word" class="">
Dear Hedvig,
<div class=""><br class="">
</div>
<div class="">I am not myself into google, twitter,
facebook, etc. beyond pressing 'like' buttons. If
you wish to put the information on these
platforms, too, please, do so, as long it does not
distract from David's exploration.</div>
<div class=""><br class="">
</div>
<div class="">Best regards,</div>
<div class=""><br class="">
</div>
<div class="">Assibi</div>
<div class=""><br class="">
<div class="">
<div class="">On 15. okt. 2018, at 13:21, Hedvig
Skirgård <<a
href="mailto:hedvig.skirgard@gmail.com"
target="_blank" class=""
moz-do-not-send="true">hedvig.skirgard@gmail.com</a>></div>
<div class=""> wrote:</div>
<br
class="m_-6983009224296648985Apple-interchange-newline">
<blockquote type="cite" class="">
<div dir="ltr" class="">May I suggest a google
form to be spread around facebook and
twitter etc?<br class="" clear="all">
<div class="">
<div dir="ltr"
class="m_-6983009224296648985gmail_signature"
data-smartmail="gmail_signature">
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class=""><br
class="">
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class=""
face="arial,
helvetica,
sans-serif"
size="2"><b
class="">Med
vänliga
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class="">,</b><br
class="">
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class="">
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class="">
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class="">
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If you have
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kindly ask you
to just use
one with
corresponding
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threads and
invites to get
confusing
otherwise. I
will only
email you from
my gmail, even
if other email
addresses
re-direct
emails to them
to my gmail
(ANU etc).</font></div>
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<div dir="ltr" class="">Den mån 15 okt. 2018
kl 21:31 skrev Assibi Apatewon Amidu <<a
href="mailto:assibi.amidu@ntnu.no"
target="_blank" class=""
moz-do-not-send="true">assibi.amidu@ntnu.no</a>>:<br
class="">
</div>
<blockquote class="gmail_quote"
style="margin:0 0 0 .8ex;border-left:1px
#ccc solid;padding-left:1ex">
<div style="word-wrap:break-word" class="">Dear
David and all,
<div class=""><br class="">
</div>
<div class="">Your exploration is very
educative. I cannot claim to be able
to answer your questions, but here is
a take from Kiswahili. In Kiswahili,
the categorization is as follows:</div>
<div class=""><br class="">
</div>
<div class="">1. <i class="">Mtu/Watu</i>
'being/s' (Classes 1/2 M/WA) includes
human and other animates. They are
superordniate terms which subsume
(2-3).</div>
<div class="">2. <i class="">Mnyama/Wanyama</i>
'animal/s, ±live' (Classes 1/2
M/WA) , (historically undifferentiated
as<i class=""> nyama/nyama</i> of
classes 9/10, N/N up to ends of the
19th century) which subsume (3), hence
hypernym to (3).</div>
<div class="">3. <i class="">Mdudu/Wadudu</i>
'insect/s, crawler/s, parasite/s, and
others, ±live' (Classes 1/2 M/WA).</div>
<div class=""><br class="">
</div>
<div class="">This gives us three
generic terms for referring to humans,
animal, insects and other species all
the way to microbes. (2-3) are
co-hyponyms of (1). These are not
sharp mutually exclusive categories.
Thus, centipede, scorpion, etc. are
also types of (3), and human, and
other animals, e.g. hippo, can be
described as <i class="">wadudu</i>, or
better still with the augmentative
<i class="">dudu/madudu</i>, depending
on the communication intention of the
speaker, e,g, how monstrous they
perceive the entity. Returning to your
list of words, they would fall under
(1-2), but specifically under (2) in
everyday usage. For a quick, not too
detailed, discussion, kindly look at
chapter 2 of</div>
<div class=""><br class="">
</div>
<div class="">Amidu, A. A. (2007). <i
class="">Semantic Assignement Rules
in Kiswahili Bantu Classes</i>. Köln: Rüdiger
Köppe Verlag. </div>
<div class=""><br class="">
</div>
<div class="">Best wishes,</div>
<div class=""><br class="">
</div>
<div class="">Assibi</div>
<div class=""><br class="">
<div class="">
<div class="">On 14. okt. 2018, at
08:11, David Gil <<a
href="mailto:gil@shh.mpg.de"
target="_blank" class=""
moz-do-not-send="true">gil@shh.mpg.de</a>></div>
<div class=""> wrote:</div>
<br
class="m_-6983009224296648985m_6965022154629685558Apple-interchange-newline">
<blockquote type="cite" class="">
<div bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
text="#000000" class="">
<p class="">Randy,</p>
<p class="">So which of the
items in (1-8) are covered by
Chinese <i class="">dòngwù</i>
(動物), ‘moving thing’?</p>
<p class="">David<br class="">
</p>
<p class=""><br class="">
</p>
<br class="">
<div
class="m_-6983009224296648985m_6965022154629685558moz-cite-prefix">On
14/10/2018 03:59, Randy
LaPolla wrote:<br class="">
</div>
<blockquote type="cite" class="">Hi
David,
<div class="">The categories
as you have them (1-8)
reflect certain cultural
conceptions, and so won’t be
the same for other cultures.
For example, in Chinese bats
were traditionally seen as
flying mice, and lizards
were seen as four-legged
snakes. </div>
<div class="">The word in
Chinese that we translate as
‘animal’ is <i class="">dòngwù</i>
(動物), ‘moving thing’. </div>
<div class=""><br class="">
</div>
<div class="">Randy<br
class="">
<div dir="ltr" class="">Sent
from my iPhone</div>
<div dir="ltr" class=""><br
class="">
On 14 Oct 2018, at 12:33
AM, David Gil <<a
href="mailto:gil@shh.mpg.de"
target="_blank" class=""
moz-do-not-send="true">gil@shh.mpg.de</a>>
wrote:<br class="">
<br class="">
</div>
<blockquote type="cite"
class="">
<div dir="ltr" class="">
<div class=""><br
class="m_-6983009224296648985webkit-block-placeholder">
</div>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span
class=""
lang="EN-US">Dear
all,</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span
class=""
lang="EN-US"><br
class="">
</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span
class=""
lang="EN-US">I am
interested in
exploring,
cross-linguistically,
the semantic range
of words that
correspond more or
less to the English
word "animal".</span></p>
<div class=""><span
class=""
lang="EN-US"> </span><br
class="m_-6983009224296648985m_6965022154629685558webkit-block-placeholder">
</div>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span
class=""
lang="EN-US">Here
are examples of the
things that English
"animal" refers to:</span></p>
<div class=""><span
class=""
lang="EN-US"> </span><br
class="m_-6983009224296648985m_6965022154629685558webkit-block-placeholder">
</div>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span
class=""
lang="EN-US">1. dog,
kangaroo, lizard,
frog ...<br class="">
</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span
class=""
lang="EN-US">2.
eagle, sparrow,
chicken, bat ...<br
class="">
</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span
class=""
lang="EN-US">3. bee,
scorpion, spider,
centipede ...<br
class="">
</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span
class=""
lang="EN-US">4.
crab, shrimp ...<br
class="">
</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span
class=""
lang="EN-US">5.
worm, leech ...<br
class="">
</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span
class=""
lang="EN-US">6.
starfish, jellyfish,
squid, octopus ...<br
class="">
</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span
class=""
lang="EN-US">7.
oyster, clam ...<br
class="">
</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span
class=""
lang="EN-US">8.
sponge (?) ...<br
class="">
</span></p>
<div class=""><span
class=""
lang="EN-US"> </span><br
class="m_-6983009224296648985m_6965022154629685558webkit-block-placeholder">
</div>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span
class=""
lang="EN-US">I am
looking for examples
of languages in
which the basic word
closest to English
"animal" is
nevertheless
different in its
coverage.<span
class="">
</span>In
particular, I would
like to find
instances — if such
exist — of languages
in which there is a
basic word that
covers the examples
in 1-4 (or maybe
1-5) to the
exclusion of those
in 5-8 (or maybe
6-8).<span class="">
</span><span
class=""> </span>(Note
that the question
concerns every-day
words that reflect
our naive folk
biological
knowledge, not with
scientific terms in
those few languages
that have such
terminology.)</span></p>
<div class=""><span
class=""
lang="EN-US"> </span><br
class="m_-6983009224296648985m_6965022154629685558webkit-block-placeholder">
</div>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span
class=""
lang="EN-US">Some
words of background:<span
class=""> </span>A
colleague and I
working in
experimental
cognitive science
have found
(non-linguistic)
empirical evidence
for the
psychological
reality of an
ontological category
that consists
roughly of animals
of the kind
exemplified in 1-4
(and possibly also
5).<span class="">
</span>
We are calling this
category "higher
animals".<span
class=""> </span>The
characteristic
prototypical
features of higher
animals include a
single axis of
symmetry, the
existence of head,
torso and limbs, a
face in the front of
the head that
includes sensory
organs such as eyes,
and a mouth for
eating, and the
ability to move
forward in the
direction that the
head is facing.
<span class=""> </span>A
challenge that we
face is that, in the
(few) languages that
we are familiar
with, there is no
simple word for
higher animals.<span
class="">
</span>But we are
hoping that other
languages might have
such a word.<span
class=""> </span>
in addition, we
would also welcome
grammatical evidence
for the category of
higher animals, for
example in the form
of grammatical rules
that are sensitive
to the animacy
hierarchy by making
reference to a
cut-off point
between higher and
other animals.</span></p>
<div class=""><span
class=""
lang="EN-US"> </span><br
class="m_-6983009224296648985m_6965022154629685558webkit-block-placeholder">
</div>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span
class=""
lang="EN-US">I look
forward to your
responses.<span
class=""> </span>
Thanks,</span></p>
<div class=""><span
class=""
lang="EN-US"> </span><br
class="m_-6983009224296648985m_6965022154629685558webkit-block-placeholder">
</div>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span
class=""
lang="EN-US">David</span></p>
<pre class="m_-6983009224296648985m_6965022154629685558moz-signature" cols="72">--
David Gil
Department of Linguistic and Cultural Evolution
Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History
Kahlaische Strasse 10, 07745 Jena, Germany
Email: <a class="m_-6983009224296648985m_6965022154629685558moz-txt-link-abbreviated" href="mailto:gil@shh.mpg.de" target="_blank" moz-do-not-send="true">gil@shh.mpg.de</a>
Office Phone (Germany): +49-3641686834
Mobile Phone (Indonesia): +62-81281162816
</pre>
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</blockquote>
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class="">
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<br class="">
<pre class="m_-6983009224296648985m_6965022154629685558moz-signature" cols="72">--
David Gil
Department of Linguistic and Cultural Evolution
Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History
Kahlaische Strasse 10, 07745 Jena, Germany
Email: <a class="m_-6983009224296648985m_6965022154629685558moz-txt-link-abbreviated" href="mailto:gil@shh.mpg.de" target="_blank" moz-do-not-send="true">gil@shh.mpg.de</a>
Office Phone (Germany): +49-3641686834
Mobile Phone (Indonesia): +62-81281162816
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<br>
<pre class="moz-signature" cols="72">--
David Gil
Department of Linguistic and Cultural Evolution
Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History
Kahlaische Strasse 10, 07745 Jena, Germany
Email: <a class="moz-txt-link-abbreviated" href="mailto:gil@shh.mpg.de">gil@shh.mpg.de</a>
Office Phone (Germany): +49-3641686834
Mobile Phone (Indonesia): +62-81281162816
</pre>
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