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    <p>I would like to endorse the point made by Östen below
      (questionnaires often elicit answers reflecting perceived norms).
      There is an important book by Greenbaum and Quirk (1970) on
      "Elicitation experiments in English linguistic studies in use and
      attitude". As the title suggests, the authors make a distinction
      between "use" and "attitude", and (naive) questionnaires often
      elicit attitude, not use. Use and attitude may of course coincide;
      but frankly, I'm not sure how I use the word "animal" in everyday
      language and what exactly it covers. In a questionnaire I would
      probably provide a normative answer. A corpus study might lead to
      more valid results concerning use, as Ian pointed out.<br>
    </p>
    <p>As far as comparability more generally is concerned, it is clear
      that it correlates with two dimensions: (i) concrete concepts are
      more comparable than abstract concepts, and (ii) specific concepts
      are more comparable than general concepts. 'Animal' is a highly
      general concept, and I would not be surprised to learn that there
      are languages that have no word for it, as it is not necessarily a
      very useful generalization. <br>
    </p>
    <p>Volker<br>
    </p>
    <blockquote type="cite"
      cite="mid:1f9ce783f6b649b6891baf9fb0ccd4e9@ling.su.se">
      <div class="WordSection1">
        <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-fareast-language:EN-US"
            lang="EN-US">I think that some caution is necessary when
            constructing a questionnaire to compare how words like
            “animal” are used. There may well be a conflict between
            perceived norms and actual usage. Direct questions such as
            “What does X mean?” or “Is X a Y?” may yield answers which
            are biased towards the former.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
        <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-fareast-language:EN-US"
            lang="EN-US">Östen<o:p></o:p></span></p>
        <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-fareast-language:EN-US"
            lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
        <div>
          <div style="border:none;border-top:solid #E1E1E1
            1.0pt;padding:3.0pt 0cm 0cm 0cm">
            <p class="MsoNormal"><b>Från:</b> Lingtyp
              <a class="moz-txt-link-rfc2396E" href="mailto:lingtyp-bounces@listserv.linguistlist.org"><lingtyp-bounces@listserv.linguistlist.org></a>
              <b>För </b>Martin Haspelmath<br>
              <b>Skickat:</b> den 15 oktober 2018 15:40<br>
              <b>Till:</b> <a class="moz-txt-link-abbreviated" href="mailto:lingtyp@listserv.linguistlist.org">lingtyp@listserv.linguistlist.org</a><br>
              <b>Ämne:</b> Re: [Lingtyp] query: "animal"<o:p></o:p></p>
          </div>
        </div>
        <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
        <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:12.0pt">In fact,
          questionnaires of the sort proposed by Hedvig and endorsed by
          David are the ONLY way in which cross-linguistic research can
          be carried out.<br>
          <br>
          There is no contradiction at all between lists of comparison
          meanings (like David's original list of 8 organism types) and
          the recognition that languages "function" differently.<br>
          <br>
          In order to express how a language "functions" (= in order to
          describe a language), one needs descriptive categories, and
          these may well involve prototypes.<br>
          <br>
          In order to find out what languages have in common, one needs
          comparative concepts (for lexical concepts: comparison
          meanings, e.g. the concept-sets in the Concepticon
          <a href="https://concepticon.clld.org/parameters"
            moz-do-not-send="true">https://concepticon.clld.org/parameters</a>).<br>
          <br>
          One should avoid the mistake of thinking that a mapping from
          language facts to comparative concepts is a description, or
          the opposite mistake of thinking that descriptive categories
          would necessarily be useful for comparison.<br>
          <br>
          (Sorry for belabouring this methodological point, but it seems
          to come up again and again...)<br>
          <br>
          Best,<br>
          Martin<o:p></o:p></p>
        <div>
          <p class="MsoNormal">On 15.10.18 15:03, David Gil wrote:<o:p></o:p></p>
        </div>
        <blockquote style="margin-top:5.0pt;margin-bottom:5.0pt">
          <p>In response to the latest posting by Johanna, I think there
            is widespread agreement that the meanings of words exhibit
            the kind of internal structuring that is usefully
            represented in terms of prototypes.  But this does not
            preclude the need for adequate descriptions of what is
            included — protypically, less prototypically, marginally, or
            not at all — in the extension of words such as "animal" and
            its putative counterparts across languages.  And
            questionnaires have proven to be a useful tool for gathering
            this kind of data — it's quite easy to formulate a
            questionnaire in such a way that it will elicit judgements
            of prototypicality (as opposed to categorical
            "black-and-white" judgements).<o:p></o:p></p>
          <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
          <div>
            <p class="MsoNormal">On 15/10/2018 14:49, Johanna Laakso
              wrote:<o:p></o:p></p>
          </div>
          <blockquote style="margin-top:5.0pt;margin-bottom:5.0pt">
            <p class="MsoNormal">Dear All, <o:p></o:p></p>
            <div>
              <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
            </div>
            <div>
              <p class="MsoNormal">to be honest, I don't believe that
                languages function with clear categories for concepts
                like "animal". More probably, there is something like a
                prototypical "core" for "animalness" (or many of them,
                if there are many categories corresponding to "animal"),
                surrounded by grey zones and depending on contexts,
                styles, subcultures, etc.<o:p></o:p></p>
            </div>
            <div>
              <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
            </div>
            <div>
              <p class="MsoNormal">My own anecdotal experience (which
                first caught my attention years ago, when working on a
                translation job): in Estonian, "loomad ja linnud"
                (‘animals and birds’, implying that ‘birds’ are a
                category distinct from ‘animals’) seems to be a pretty
                frequent expression (more than 60,000 Google hits). As a
                native speaker of Finnish, I find the Finnish equivalent
                expression, "eläimet ja linnut", less natural or not as
                idiomatic and acceptable as the Estonian one; it does
                occur but clearly less frequently than in Estonian
                (13,700 Google hits), and according to my intuition, the
                Finnish ‘bird’ is a borderline case – birds might be
                "animals" or "not-animals", depending on context and
                use. I'm also pretty sure that many other Finnish
                speakers might see this differently.<o:p></o:p></p>
            </div>
            <div>
              <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
            </div>
            <div>
              <p class="MsoNormal">Therefore, I have great doubts
                concerning the use of questionnaires for gathering data.
                Or, at least, the questionnaire should be very carefully
                planned, to accommodate vagueness and fuzzy or
                overlapping categories.<o:p></o:p></p>
            </div>
            <div>
              <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
            </div>
            <div>
              <p class="MsoNormal">Best<o:p></o:p></p>
            </div>
            <div>
              <p class="MsoNormal">Johanna<o:p></o:p></p>
            </div>
            <div>
              <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
            </div>
            <div>
              <p class="MsoNormal">PS. Note also that terms for animals
                in many languages are greatly affected by taboos. And
                that the term ‘animal’ in itself is often a derivative
                (Finnish eläin = "living thing", Estonian loom =
                "creature", Hungarian állat = "standing thing") or a
                result of semantic extension or specification (cf.
                German "Tier" and its Scandinavian cognates with English
                "deer", or the fact that Hungarian "állat" a few
                centuries ago had a more general meaning, something like
                "entity" or "being") and that these developments might
                be connected to cultural changes.<o:p></o:p></p>
              <div>
                <div>
                  <div>
                    <div>
                      <p class="MsoNormal"><span
                          style="font-family:"Helvetica",sans-serif">--<o:p></o:p></span></p>
                    </div>
                    <div>
                      <p class="MsoNormal"><span
                          style="font-family:"Helvetica",sans-serif">Univ.Prof.
                          Dr. Johanna Laakso<o:p></o:p></span></p>
                    </div>
                    <div>
                      <p class="MsoNormal"><span
                          style="font-family:"Helvetica",sans-serif">Universität
                          Wien, Institut für Europäische und
                          Vergleichende Sprach- und
                          Literaturwissenschaft (EVSL)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
                    </div>
                    <div>
                      <p class="MsoNormal"><span
                          style="font-family:"Helvetica",sans-serif">Abteilung
                          Finno-Ugristik<o:p></o:p></span></p>
                    </div>
                    <div>
                      <p class="MsoNormal"><span
                          style="font-family:"Helvetica",sans-serif">Campus
                          AAKH Spitalgasse 2-4 Hof 7<o:p></o:p></span></p>
                    </div>
                    <div>
                      <p class="MsoNormal"><span
                          style="font-family:"Helvetica",sans-serif">A-1090
                          Wien<o:p></o:p></span></p>
                    </div>
                    <div>
                      <p class="MsoNormal"><span
                          style="font-family:"Helvetica",sans-serif"><a
                            href="mailto:johanna.laakso@univie.ac.at"
                            moz-do-not-send="true">johanna.laakso@univie.ac.at</a>
                          •
                          <a
                            href="http://homepage.univie.ac.at/Johanna.Laakso/"
                            moz-do-not-send="true">http://homepage.univie.ac.at/Johanna.Laakso/</a><o:p></o:p></span></p>
                    </div>
                    <div>
                      <p class="MsoNormal"><span
                          style="font-family:"Helvetica",sans-serif">Project
                          ELDIA:
                          <a href="http://www.eldia-project.org/"
                            moz-do-not-send="true">http://www.eldia-project.org/</a> <o:p></o:p></span></p>
                    </div>
                    <div>
                      <p class="MsoNormal"><span
                          style="font-family:"Helvetica",sans-serif"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
                    </div>
                  </div>
                  <p class="MsoNormal"><span
                      style="font-family:"Helvetica",sans-serif"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
                </div>
                <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:12.0pt"><o:p> </o:p></p>
              </div>
              <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
              <div>
                <blockquote style="margin-top:5.0pt;margin-bottom:5.0pt">
                  <div>
                    <p class="MsoNormal">Hedvig Skirgård <<a
                        href="mailto:hedvig.skirgard@gmail.com"
                        moz-do-not-send="true">hedvig.skirgard@gmail.com</a>>
                      kirjoitti 15.10.2018 kello 13.55:<o:p></o:p></p>
                  </div>
                  <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
                  <div>
                    <div>
                      <p class="MsoNormal">Dear everyone,  <o:p></o:p></p>
                      <div>
                        <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
                      </div>
                      <div>
                        <p class="MsoNormal">Queries like one David
                          posed are often improved via more systematic
                          data collection using a form. I suggested
                          Google Forms because it's one of the most user
                          friendly and familiar interfaces out there
                          where David could set up a questionnaire and
                          collect data on people's usage of words in
                          their respective language, and also get
                          systematic data on exactly what language they
                          speaks.<o:p></o:p></p>
                      </div>
                      <div>
                        <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
                      </div>
                      <div>
                        <p class="MsoNormal">I'm not going to set this
                          up for anyone else or compile the information
                          in this thread, I'm merely suggesting that it
                          a Google Form may be a productive way of going
                          about this. <br clear="all">
                          <o:p></o:p></p>
                        <div>
                          <div>
                            <div>
                              <div>
                                <div>
                                  <div>
                                    <div>
                                      <div>
                                        <div>
                                          <div>
                                            <div>
                                              <div>
                                                <div>
                                                  <div>
                                                    <div>
                                                      <div>
                                                        <div>
                                                          <p
                                                          class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
                                                        </div>
                                                        <div>
                                                          <p
                                                          class="MsoNormal"><b><span
style="font-size:10.0pt;font-family:"Arial",sans-serif">Med
                                                          vänliga
                                                          hälsningar,</span></b><o:p></o:p></p>
                                                        </div>
                                                        <div>
                                                          <p
                                                          class="MsoNormal"><b><span
style="font-size:10.0pt;font-family:"Arial",sans-serif">Hedvig
                                                          Skirgård</span></b><o:p></o:p></p>
                                                        </div>
                                                        <div>
                                                          <p
                                                          class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
                                                        </div>
                                                        <div>
                                                          <p
                                                          class="MsoNormal"><span
style="font-size:7.5pt;font-family:"Verdana",sans-serif">PhD
                                                          Candidate</span><o:p></o:p></p>
                                                        </div>
                                                        <div>
                                                          <p
                                                          class="MsoNormal"><span
style="font-size:7.5pt;font-family:"Verdana",sans-serif">The
                                                          Wellsprings of
                                                          Linguistic
                                                          Diversity</span><span
style="font-family:"Verdana",sans-serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
                                                        </div>
                                                        <div>
                                                          <p
                                                          class="MsoNormal"><span
style="font-size:7.5pt;font-family:"Verdana",sans-serif">ARC
                                                          Centre of
                                                          Excellence for
                                                          the Dynamics
                                                          of Language</span><span
style="font-family:"Verdana",sans-serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
                                                        </div>
                                                        <div>
                                                          <p
                                                          class="MsoNormal"><span
style="font-size:7.5pt;font-family:"Verdana",sans-serif">School
                                                          of Culture,
                                                          History and
                                                          Language<br>
                                                          College of
                                                          Asia and the
                                                          Pacific</span><span
style="font-family:"Verdana",sans-serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
                                                        </div>
                                                        <div>
                                                          <p
                                                          class="MsoNormal"><span
style="font-size:7.5pt;font-family:"Arial",sans-serif">The
                                                          Australian
                                                          National University</span><o:p></o:p></p>
                                                        </div>
                                                        <div>
                                                          <p
                                                          class="MsoNormal"><span
style="font-size:7.5pt;font-family:"Arial",sans-serif;color:#666666"><a
href="https://sites.google.com/site/hedvigskirgard/" target="_blank"
                                                          moz-do-not-send="true">Website</a></span><o:p></o:p></p>
                                                        </div>
                                                        <div>
                                                          <p
                                                          class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
                                                        </div>
                                                        <div>
                                                          <p
                                                          class="MsoNormal"><span
style="font-size:7.5pt;font-family:"Arial",sans-serif">P.S. If
                                                          you have
                                                          multiple email
                                                          addresses, I
                                                          kindly ask you
                                                          to just use
                                                          one with
                                                          corresponding
                                                          with me. Email
                                                          threads and
                                                          invites to get
                                                          confusing
                                                          otherwise. I
                                                          will only
                                                          email you from
                                                          my gmail, even
                                                          if other email
                                                          addresses
                                                          re-direct
                                                          emails to them
                                                          to my gmail
                                                          (ANU etc).</span><o:p></o:p></p>
                                                        </div>
                                                        <div>
                                                          <p
                                                          class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
                                                        </div>
                                                      </div>
                                                    </div>
                                                  </div>
                                                </div>
                                              </div>
                                            </div>
                                          </div>
                                        </div>
                                      </div>
                                    </div>
                                  </div>
                                </div>
                              </div>
                            </div>
                          </div>
                        </div>
                        <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
                      </div>
                    </div>
                    <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
                    <div>
                      <div>
                        <p class="MsoNormal">Den mån 15 okt. 2018 kl
                          22:50 skrev Assibi Apatewon Amidu <<a
                            href="mailto:assibi.amidu@ntnu.no"
                            moz-do-not-send="true">assibi.amidu@ntnu.no</a>>:<o:p></o:p></p>
                      </div>
                      <blockquote style="border:none;border-left:solid
                        #CCCCCC 1.0pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm
                        6.0pt;margin-left:4.8pt;margin-right:0cm">
                        <div>
                          <p class="MsoNormal">Dear Hedvig, <o:p></o:p></p>
                          <div>
                            <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
                          </div>
                          <div>
                            <p class="MsoNormal">I am not myself into
                              google, twitter, facebook, etc. beyond
                              pressing 'like' buttons. If you wish to
                              put the information on these platforms,
                              too, please, do so, as long it does not
                              distract from David's exploration.<o:p></o:p></p>
                          </div>
                          <div>
                            <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
                          </div>
                          <div>
                            <p class="MsoNormal">Best regards,<o:p></o:p></p>
                          </div>
                          <div>
                            <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
                          </div>
                          <div>
                            <p class="MsoNormal">Assibi<o:p></o:p></p>
                          </div>
                          <div>
                            <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
                            <div>
                              <div>
                                <p class="MsoNormal">On 15. okt. 2018,
                                  at 13:21, Hedvig Skirgård <<a
                                    href="mailto:hedvig.skirgard@gmail.com"
                                    target="_blank"
                                    moz-do-not-send="true">hedvig.skirgard@gmail.com</a>><o:p></o:p></p>
                              </div>
                              <div>
                                <p class="MsoNormal"> wrote:<o:p></o:p></p>
                              </div>
                              <p class="MsoNormal"><br>
                                <br>
                                <o:p></o:p></p>
                              <blockquote
                                style="margin-top:5.0pt;margin-bottom:5.0pt">
                                <div>
                                  <p class="MsoNormal">May I suggest a
                                    google form to be spread around
                                    facebook and twitter etc?<br
                                      clear="all">
                                    <o:p></o:p></p>
                                  <div>
                                    <div>
                                      <div>
                                        <div>
                                          <div>
                                            <div>
                                              <div>
                                                <div>
                                                  <div>
                                                    <div>
                                                      <div>
                                                        <div>
                                                          <div>
                                                          <div>
                                                          <div>
                                                          <p
                                                          class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
                                                          </div>
                                                          <div>
                                                          <p
                                                          class="MsoNormal"><b><span
style="font-size:10.0pt;font-family:"Arial",sans-serif">Med
                                                          vänliga
                                                          hälsningar,</span></b><o:p></o:p></p>
                                                          </div>
                                                          <div>
                                                          <p
                                                          class="MsoNormal"><b><span
style="font-size:10.0pt;font-family:"Arial",sans-serif">Hedvig
                                                          Skirgård</span></b><o:p></o:p></p>
                                                          </div>
                                                          <div>
                                                          <p
                                                          class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
                                                          </div>
                                                          <div>
                                                          <p
                                                          class="MsoNormal"><span
style="font-size:7.5pt;font-family:"Verdana",sans-serif">PhD
                                                          Candidate</span><o:p></o:p></p>
                                                          </div>
                                                          <div>
                                                          <p
                                                          class="MsoNormal"><span
style="font-size:7.5pt;font-family:"Verdana",sans-serif">The
                                                          Wellsprings of
                                                          Linguistic
                                                          Diversity</span><span
style="font-family:"Verdana",sans-serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
                                                          </div>
                                                          <div>
                                                          <p
                                                          class="MsoNormal"><span
style="font-size:7.5pt;font-family:"Verdana",sans-serif">ARC
                                                          Centre of
                                                          Excellence for
                                                          the Dynamics
                                                          of Language</span><span
style="font-family:"Verdana",sans-serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
                                                          </div>
                                                          <div>
                                                          <p
                                                          class="MsoNormal"><span
style="font-size:7.5pt;font-family:"Verdana",sans-serif">School
                                                          of Culture,
                                                          History and
                                                          Language<br>
                                                          College of
                                                          Asia and the
                                                          Pacific</span><span
style="font-family:"Verdana",sans-serif"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
                                                          </div>
                                                          <div>
                                                          <p
                                                          class="MsoNormal"><span
style="font-size:7.5pt;font-family:"Arial",sans-serif">The
                                                          Australian
                                                          National University</span><o:p></o:p></p>
                                                          </div>
                                                          <div>
                                                          <p
                                                          class="MsoNormal"><span
style="font-size:7.5pt;font-family:"Arial",sans-serif;color:#666666"><a
href="https://sites.google.com/site/hedvigskirgard/" target="_blank"
                                                          moz-do-not-send="true">Website</a></span><o:p></o:p></p>
                                                          </div>
                                                          <div>
                                                          <p
                                                          class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
                                                          </div>
                                                          <div>
                                                          <p
                                                          class="MsoNormal"><span
style="font-size:7.5pt;font-family:"Arial",sans-serif">P.S. If
                                                          you have
                                                          multiple email
                                                          addresses, I
                                                          kindly ask you
                                                          to just use
                                                          one with
                                                          corresponding
                                                          with me. Email
                                                          threads and
                                                          invites to get
                                                          confusing
                                                          otherwise. I
                                                          will only
                                                          email you from
                                                          my gmail, even
                                                          if other email
                                                          addresses
                                                          re-direct
                                                          emails to them
                                                          to my gmail
                                                          (ANU etc).</span><o:p></o:p></p>
                                                          </div>
                                                          <div>
                                                          <p
                                                          class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
                                                          </div>
                                                          </div>
                                                          </div>
                                                        </div>
                                                      </div>
                                                    </div>
                                                  </div>
                                                </div>
                                              </div>
                                            </div>
                                          </div>
                                        </div>
                                      </div>
                                    </div>
                                  </div>
                                  <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
                                </div>
                                <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
                                <div>
                                  <div>
                                    <p class="MsoNormal">Den mån 15 okt.
                                      2018 kl 21:31 skrev Assibi
                                      Apatewon Amidu <<a
                                        href="mailto:assibi.amidu@ntnu.no"
                                        target="_blank"
                                        moz-do-not-send="true">assibi.amidu@ntnu.no</a>>:<o:p></o:p></p>
                                  </div>
                                  <blockquote
                                    style="border:none;border-left:solid
                                    #CCCCCC 1.0pt;padding:0cm 0cm 0cm
                                    6.0pt;margin-left:4.8pt;margin-right:0cm">
                                    <div>
                                      <p class="MsoNormal">Dear David
                                        and all, <o:p></o:p></p>
                                      <div>
                                        <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
                                      </div>
                                      <div>
                                        <p class="MsoNormal">Your
                                          exploration is very educative.
                                          I cannot claim to be able to
                                          answer your questions, but
                                          here is a take from Kiswahili.
                                          In Kiswahili, the
                                          categorization is as follows:<o:p></o:p></p>
                                      </div>
                                      <div>
                                        <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
                                      </div>
                                      <div>
                                        <p class="MsoNormal">1. <i>Mtu/Watu</i>
                                          'being/s' (Classes 1/2 M/WA)
                                          includes human and other
                                          animates. They are
                                          superordniate terms which
                                          subsume (2-3).<o:p></o:p></p>
                                      </div>
                                      <div>
                                        <p class="MsoNormal">2. <i>Mnyama/Wanyama</i>
                                          'animal/s, ±live' (Classes 1/2
                                          M/WA) , (historically
                                          undifferentiated as<i>
                                            nyama/nyama</i> of classes
                                          9/10, N/N up to ends of the
                                          19th century) which subsume
                                          (3), hence hypernym to (3).<o:p></o:p></p>
                                      </div>
                                      <div>
                                        <p class="MsoNormal">3. <i>Mdudu/Wadudu</i>
                                          'insect/s, crawler/s,
                                          parasite/s, and others,
                                          ±live' (Classes 1/2 M/WA).<o:p></o:p></p>
                                      </div>
                                      <div>
                                        <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
                                      </div>
                                      <div>
                                        <p class="MsoNormal">This gives
                                          us three generic terms for
                                          referring to humans, animal,
                                          insects and other species all
                                          the way to microbes. (2-3) are
                                          co-hyponyms of (1). These are
                                          not sharp mutually exclusive
                                          categories. Thus, centipede,
                                          scorpion, etc. are also types
                                          of  (3), and human, and other
                                          animals, e.g. hippo, can be
                                          described as <i>
                                            wadudu</i>, or better still
                                          with the augmentative <i>dudu/madudu</i>,
                                          depending on the communication
                                          intention of the speaker, e,g,
                                          how monstrous they perceive
                                          the entity. Returning to your
                                          list of words, they would fall
                                          under (1-2), but specifically
                                          under (2) in everyday usage.
                                          For a quick, not too detailed,
                                          discussion, kindly look at
                                          chapter 2 of<o:p></o:p></p>
                                      </div>
                                      <div>
                                        <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
                                      </div>
                                      <div>
                                        <p class="MsoNormal">Amidu, A.
                                          A. (2007). <i>Semantic
                                            Assignement Rules in
                                            Kiswahili Bantu Classes</i>. Köln: Rüdiger
                                          Köppe Verlag. <o:p></o:p></p>
                                      </div>
                                      <div>
                                        <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
                                      </div>
                                      <div>
                                        <p class="MsoNormal">Best
                                          wishes,<o:p></o:p></p>
                                      </div>
                                      <div>
                                        <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
                                      </div>
                                      <div>
                                        <p class="MsoNormal">Assibi<o:p></o:p></p>
                                      </div>
                                      <div>
                                        <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
                                        <div>
                                          <div>
                                            <p class="MsoNormal">On 14.
                                              okt. 2018, at 08:11, David
                                              Gil <<a
                                                href="mailto:gil@shh.mpg.de"
                                                target="_blank"
                                                moz-do-not-send="true">gil@shh.mpg.de</a>><o:p></o:p></p>
                                          </div>
                                          <div>
                                            <p class="MsoNormal"> wrote:<o:p></o:p></p>
                                          </div>
                                          <p class="MsoNormal"><br>
                                            <br>
                                            <o:p></o:p></p>
                                          <blockquote
                                            style="margin-top:5.0pt;margin-bottom:5.0pt">
                                            <div>
                                              <p class="MsoNormal"
                                                style="mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto">Randy,<o:p></o:p></p>
                                              <p class="MsoNormal"
                                                style="mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto">So
                                                which of the items in
                                                (1-8) are covered by
                                                Chinese
                                                <i>dòngwù</i> (<span
                                                  style="font-family:"MS
                                                  Gothic"">動物</span>),
                                                ‘moving thing’?<o:p></o:p></p>
                                              <p class="MsoNormal"
                                                style="mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto">David<o:p></o:p></p>
                                              <p class="MsoNormal"
                                                style="mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto"><o:p> </o:p></p>
                                              <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
                                              <div>
                                                <p class="MsoNormal">On
                                                  14/10/2018 03:59,
                                                  Randy LaPolla wrote:<o:p></o:p></p>
                                              </div>
                                              <blockquote
                                                style="margin-top:5.0pt;margin-bottom:5.0pt">
                                                <p class="MsoNormal">Hi
                                                  David, <o:p></o:p></p>
                                                <div>
                                                  <p class="MsoNormal">The
                                                    categories as you
                                                    have them (1-8)
                                                    reflect certain
                                                    cultural
                                                    conceptions, and so
                                                    won’t be the same
                                                    for other cultures.
                                                    For example, in
                                                    Chinese bats were
                                                    traditionally seen
                                                    as flying mice, and
                                                    lizards were seen as
                                                    four-legged snakes. <o:p></o:p></p>
                                                </div>
                                                <div>
                                                  <p class="MsoNormal">The
                                                    word in Chinese that
                                                    we translate as
                                                    ‘animal’ is <i>dòngwù</i>
                                                    (<span
                                                      style="font-family:"MS
                                                      Gothic"">動物</span>),
                                                    ‘moving thing’. <o:p></o:p></p>
                                                </div>
                                                <div>
                                                  <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
                                                </div>
                                                <div>
                                                  <p class="MsoNormal">Randy<o:p></o:p></p>
                                                  <div>
                                                    <p class="MsoNormal">Sent
                                                      from my iPhone<o:p></o:p></p>
                                                  </div>
                                                  <div>
                                                    <p class="MsoNormal"
style="margin-bottom:12.0pt"><br>
                                                      On 14 Oct 2018, at
                                                      12:33 AM, David
                                                      Gil <<a
                                                        href="mailto:gil@shh.mpg.de"
                                                        target="_blank"
moz-do-not-send="true">gil@shh.mpg.de</a>> wrote:<o:p></o:p></p>
                                                  </div>
                                                  <blockquote
                                                    style="margin-top:5.0pt;margin-bottom:5.0pt">
                                                    <div>
                                                      <div>
                                                        <p
                                                          class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
                                                      </div>
                                                      <p
                                                        class="MsoNormal"
style="mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto"><span
                                                          lang="EN-US">Dear
                                                          all,</span><o:p></o:p></p>
                                                      <p
                                                        class="MsoNormal"
style="mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto"><o:p> </o:p></p>
                                                      <p
                                                        class="MsoNormal"
style="mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto"><span
                                                          lang="EN-US">I
                                                          am interested
                                                          in exploring,
cross-linguistically, the semantic range of words that correspond more
                                                          or less to the
                                                          English word
                                                          "animal".</span><o:p></o:p></p>
                                                      <div>
                                                        <p
                                                          class="MsoNormal"><span
                                                          lang="EN-US"> </span><o:p></o:p></p>
                                                      </div>
                                                      <p
                                                        class="MsoNormal"
style="mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto"><span
                                                          lang="EN-US">Here
                                                          are examples
                                                          of the things
                                                          that English
                                                          "animal"
                                                          refers to:</span><o:p></o:p></p>
                                                      <div>
                                                        <p
                                                          class="MsoNormal"><span
                                                          lang="EN-US"> </span><o:p></o:p></p>
                                                      </div>
                                                      <p
                                                        class="MsoNormal"
style="mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto"><span
                                                          lang="EN-US">1.
                                                          dog, kangaroo,
                                                          lizard, frog
                                                          ...</span><o:p></o:p></p>
                                                      <p
                                                        class="MsoNormal"
style="mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto"><span
                                                          lang="EN-US">2.
                                                          eagle,
                                                          sparrow,
                                                          chicken, bat
                                                          ...</span><o:p></o:p></p>
                                                      <p
                                                        class="MsoNormal"
style="mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto"><span
                                                          lang="EN-US">3.
                                                          bee, scorpion,
                                                          spider,
                                                          centipede ...</span><o:p></o:p></p>
                                                      <p
                                                        class="MsoNormal"
style="mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto"><span
                                                          lang="EN-US">4.
                                                          crab, shrimp
                                                          ...</span><o:p></o:p></p>
                                                      <p
                                                        class="MsoNormal"
style="mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto"><span
                                                          lang="EN-US">5.
                                                          worm, leech
                                                          ...</span><o:p></o:p></p>
                                                      <p
                                                        class="MsoNormal"
style="mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto"><span
                                                          lang="EN-US">6.
                                                          starfish,
                                                          jellyfish,
                                                          squid, octopus
                                                          ...</span><o:p></o:p></p>
                                                      <p
                                                        class="MsoNormal"
style="mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto"><span
                                                          lang="EN-US">7.
                                                          oyster, clam
                                                          ...</span><o:p></o:p></p>
                                                      <p
                                                        class="MsoNormal"
style="mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto"><span
                                                          lang="EN-US">8.
                                                          sponge (?) ...</span><o:p></o:p></p>
                                                      <div>
                                                        <p
                                                          class="MsoNormal"><span
                                                          lang="EN-US"> </span><o:p></o:p></p>
                                                      </div>
                                                      <p
                                                        class="MsoNormal"
style="mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto"><span
                                                          lang="EN-US">I
                                                          am looking for
                                                          examples of
                                                          languages in
                                                          which the
                                                          basic word
                                                          closest to
                                                          English
                                                          "animal" is
                                                          nevertheless
                                                          different in
                                                          its coverage. 
                                                          In particular,
                                                          I would like
                                                          to find
                                                          instances — if
                                                          such exist —
                                                          of languages
                                                          in which there
                                                          is a basic
                                                          word that
                                                          covers the
                                                          examples in
                                                          1-4 (or maybe
                                                          1-5) to the
                                                          exclusion of
                                                          those in 5-8
                                                          (or maybe
                                                          6-8).   (Note
                                                          that the
                                                          question
                                                          concerns
                                                          every-day
                                                          words that
                                                          reflect our
                                                          naive folk
                                                          biological
                                                          knowledge, not
                                                          with
                                                          scientific
                                                          terms in those
                                                          few languages
                                                          that have such
                                                          terminology.)</span><o:p></o:p></p>
                                                      <div>
                                                        <p
                                                          class="MsoNormal"><span
                                                          lang="EN-US"> </span><o:p></o:p></p>
                                                      </div>
                                                      <p
                                                        class="MsoNormal"
style="mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto"><span
                                                          lang="EN-US">Some
                                                          words of
                                                          background:  A
                                                          colleague and
                                                          I working in
                                                          experimental
                                                          cognitive
                                                          science have
                                                          found
                                                          (non-linguistic)
                                                          empirical
                                                          evidence for
                                                          the
                                                          psychological
                                                          reality of an
                                                          ontological
                                                          category that
                                                          consists
                                                          roughly of
                                                          animals of the
                                                          kind
                                                          exemplified in
                                                          1-4 (and
                                                          possibly also
                                                          5).  We are
                                                          calling this
                                                          category
                                                          "higher
                                                          animals".  The
                                                          characteristic
                                                          prototypical
                                                          features of
                                                          higher animals
                                                          include a
                                                          single axis of
                                                          symmetry, the
                                                          existence of
                                                          head, torso
                                                          and limbs, a
                                                          face in the
                                                          front of the
                                                          head that
                                                          includes
                                                          sensory organs
                                                          such as eyes,
                                                          and a mouth
                                                          for eating,
                                                          and the
                                                          ability to
                                                          move forward
                                                          in the
                                                          direction that
                                                          the head is
                                                          facing.  A
                                                          challenge that
                                                          we face is
                                                          that, in the
                                                          (few)
                                                          languages that
                                                          we are
                                                          familiar with,
                                                          there is no
                                                          simple word
                                                          for higher
                                                          animals.  But
                                                          we are hoping
                                                          that other
                                                          languages
                                                          might have
                                                          such a word. 
                                                          in addition,
                                                          we would also
                                                          welcome
                                                          grammatical
                                                          evidence for
                                                          the category
                                                          of higher
                                                          animals, for
                                                          example in the
                                                          form of
                                                          grammatical
                                                          rules that are
                                                          sensitive to
                                                          the animacy
                                                          hierarchy by
                                                          making
                                                          reference to a
                                                          cut-off point
                                                          between higher
                                                          and other
                                                          animals.</span><o:p></o:p></p>
                                                      <div>
                                                        <p
                                                          class="MsoNormal"><span
                                                          lang="EN-US"> </span><o:p></o:p></p>
                                                      </div>
                                                      <p
                                                        class="MsoNormal"
style="mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto"><span
                                                          lang="EN-US">I
                                                          look forward
                                                          to your
                                                          responses. 
                                                          Thanks,</span><o:p></o:p></p>
                                                      <div>
                                                        <p
                                                          class="MsoNormal"><span
                                                          lang="EN-US"> </span><o:p></o:p></p>
                                                      </div>
                                                      <p
                                                        class="MsoNormal"
style="mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto"><span
                                                          lang="EN-US">David</span><o:p></o:p></p>
                                                      <pre>-- <o:p></o:p></pre>
                                                      <pre>David Gil<o:p></o:p></pre>
                                                      <pre><o:p> </o:p></pre>
                                                      <pre>Department of Linguistic and Cultural Evolution<o:p></o:p></pre>
                                                      <pre>Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History<o:p></o:p></pre>
                                                      <pre>Kahlaische Strasse 10, 07745 Jena, Germany<o:p></o:p></pre>
                                                      <pre><o:p> </o:p></pre>
                                                      <pre>Email: <a href="mailto:gil@shh.mpg.de" target="_blank" moz-do-not-send="true">gil@shh.mpg.de</a><o:p></o:p></pre>
                                                      <pre>Office Phone (Germany): +49-3641686834<o:p></o:p></pre>
                                                      <pre>Mobile Phone (Indonesia): +62-81281162816<o:p></o:p></pre>
                                                      <pre><o:p> </o:p></pre>
                                                    </div>
                                                  </blockquote>
                                                  <blockquote
                                                    style="margin-top:5.0pt;margin-bottom:5.0pt">
                                                    <div>
                                                      <p
                                                        class="MsoNormal">_______________________________________________<br>
                                                        Lingtyp mailing
                                                        list<br>
                                                        <a
                                                          href="mailto:Lingtyp@listserv.linguistlist.org"
target="_blank" moz-do-not-send="true">Lingtyp@listserv.linguistlist.org</a><br>
                                                        <a
                                                          href="http://listserv.linguistlist.org/mailman/listinfo/lingtyp"
target="_blank" moz-do-not-send="true">http://listserv.linguistlist.org/mailman/listinfo/lingtyp</a><o:p></o:p></p>
                                                    </div>
                                                  </blockquote>
                                                </div>
                                              </blockquote>
                                              <p class="MsoNormal"><br>
                                                <br>
                                                <o:p></o:p></p>
                                              <pre>-- <o:p></o:p></pre>
                                              <pre>David Gil<o:p></o:p></pre>
                                              <pre><o:p> </o:p></pre>
                                              <pre>Department of Linguistic and Cultural Evolution<o:p></o:p></pre>
                                              <pre>Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History<o:p></o:p></pre>
                                              <pre>Kahlaische Strasse 10, 07745 Jena, Germany<o:p></o:p></pre>
                                              <pre><o:p> </o:p></pre>
                                              <pre>Email: <a href="mailto:gil@shh.mpg.de" target="_blank" moz-do-not-send="true">gil@shh.mpg.de</a><o:p></o:p></pre>
                                              <pre>Office Phone (Germany): +49-3641686834<o:p></o:p></pre>
                                              <pre>Mobile Phone (Indonesia): +62-81281162816<o:p></o:p></pre>
                                              <pre><o:p> </o:p></pre>
                                            </div>
                                            <p class="MsoNormal">_______________________________________________<br>
                                              Lingtyp mailing list<br>
                                              <a
                                                href="mailto:Lingtyp@listserv.linguistlist.org"
                                                target="_blank"
                                                moz-do-not-send="true">Lingtyp@listserv.linguistlist.org</a><br>
                                              <a
                                                href="http://listserv.linguistlist.org/mailman/listinfo/lingtyp"
                                                target="_blank"
                                                moz-do-not-send="true">http://listserv.linguistlist.org/mailman/listinfo/lingtyp</a><o:p></o:p></p>
                                          </blockquote>
                                        </div>
                                        <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
                                      </div>
                                    </div>
                                    <p class="MsoNormal">_______________________________________________<br>
                                      Lingtyp mailing list<br>
                                      <a
                                        href="mailto:Lingtyp@listserv.linguistlist.org"
                                        target="_blank"
                                        moz-do-not-send="true">Lingtyp@listserv.linguistlist.org</a><br>
                                      <a
                                        href="http://listserv.linguistlist.org/mailman/listinfo/lingtyp"
                                        target="_blank"
                                        moz-do-not-send="true">http://listserv.linguistlist.org/mailman/listinfo/lingtyp</a><o:p></o:p></p>
                                  </blockquote>
                                </div>
                              </blockquote>
                            </div>
                            <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
                          </div>
                        </div>
                      </blockquote>
                    </div>
                    <p class="MsoNormal">_______________________________________________<br>
                      Lingtyp mailing list<br>
                      <a href="mailto:Lingtyp@listserv.linguistlist.org"
                        moz-do-not-send="true">Lingtyp@listserv.linguistlist.org</a><br>
                      <a
                        href="http://listserv.linguistlist.org/mailman/listinfo/lingtyp"
                        moz-do-not-send="true">http://listserv.linguistlist.org/mailman/listinfo/lingtyp</a><o:p></o:p></p>
                  </div>
                </blockquote>
              </div>
              <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
            </div>
            <p class="MsoNormal"><br>
              <br>
              <br>
              <o:p></o:p></p>
            <pre>_______________________________________________<o:p></o:p></pre>
            <pre>Lingtyp mailing list<o:p></o:p></pre>
            <pre><a href="mailto:Lingtyp@listserv.linguistlist.org" moz-do-not-send="true">Lingtyp@listserv.linguistlist.org</a><o:p></o:p></pre>
            <pre><a href="http://listserv.linguistlist.org/mailman/listinfo/lingtyp" moz-do-not-send="true">http://listserv.linguistlist.org/mailman/listinfo/lingtyp</a><o:p></o:p></pre>
          </blockquote>
          <p class="MsoNormal"><br>
            <br>
            <o:p></o:p></p>
          <pre>-- <o:p></o:p></pre>
          <pre>David Gil<o:p></o:p></pre>
          <pre><o:p> </o:p></pre>
          <pre>Department of Linguistic and Cultural Evolution<o:p></o:p></pre>
          <pre>Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History<o:p></o:p></pre>
          <pre>Kahlaische Strasse 10, 07745 Jena, Germany<o:p></o:p></pre>
          <pre><o:p> </o:p></pre>
          <pre>Email: <a href="mailto:gil@shh.mpg.de" moz-do-not-send="true">gil@shh.mpg.de</a><o:p></o:p></pre>
          <pre>Office Phone (Germany): +49-3641686834<o:p></o:p></pre>
          <pre>Mobile Phone (Indonesia): +62-81281162816<o:p></o:p></pre>
          <pre><o:p> </o:p></pre>
          <p class="MsoNormal"><br>
            <br>
            <br>
            <o:p></o:p></p>
          <pre>_______________________________________________<o:p></o:p></pre>
          <pre>Lingtyp mailing list<o:p></o:p></pre>
          <pre><a href="mailto:Lingtyp@listserv.linguistlist.org" moz-do-not-send="true">Lingtyp@listserv.linguistlist.org</a><o:p></o:p></pre>
          <pre><a href="http://listserv.linguistlist.org/mailman/listinfo/lingtyp" moz-do-not-send="true">http://listserv.linguistlist.org/mailman/listinfo/lingtyp</a><o:p></o:p></pre>
        </blockquote>
        <p class="MsoNormal"><br>
          <br>
          <o:p></o:p></p>
        <pre>-- <o:p></o:p></pre>
        <pre>Martin Haspelmath (<a href="mailto:haspelmath@shh.mpg.de" moz-do-not-send="true">haspelmath@shh.mpg.de</a>)<o:p></o:p></pre>
        <pre>Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History<o:p></o:p></pre>
        <pre>Kahlaische Strasse 10  <o:p></o:p></pre>
        <pre>D-07745 Jena  <o:p></o:p></pre>
        <pre>&<o:p></o:p></pre>
        <pre>Leipzig University<o:p></o:p></pre>
        <pre>Institut fuer Anglistik <o:p></o:p></pre>
        <pre>IPF 141199<o:p></o:p></pre>
        <pre>D-04081 Leipzig    <o:p></o:p></pre>
        <pre><o:p> </o:p></pre>
        <pre><o:p> </o:p></pre>
        <pre><o:p> </o:p></pre>
        <pre><o:p> </o:p></pre>
        <pre><o:p> </o:p></pre>
      </div>
      <br>
      <fieldset class="mimeAttachmentHeader"></fieldset>
      <pre class="moz-quote-pre" wrap="">_______________________________________________
Lingtyp mailing list
<a class="moz-txt-link-abbreviated" href="mailto:Lingtyp@listserv.linguistlist.org">Lingtyp@listserv.linguistlist.org</a>
<a class="moz-txt-link-freetext" href="http://listserv.linguistlist.org/mailman/listinfo/lingtyp">http://listserv.linguistlist.org/mailman/listinfo/lingtyp</a>
</pre>
    </blockquote>
  </body>
</html>