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Dear typologists,<br>
<br>
In the discussion of words, affixes, and polysynthesis, the notion
of forms being "bound" occurs again and again, and in the discussion
of agglutination, people often talk about complex words being
"fused" (or not fused). In order to make headway, I feel that we as
linguists should make clear how we use terms like "attached",
"bound", and "fused".<br>
<br>
In my own work, I have been using the term "bound" in the
well-established Bloomfield-Zwicky sense (= unable to occur in
isolation), but some people have relied on a notion of
"phonologically bound" in discussions of wordhood. I think it's
better not to use "bound" in two different senses, so I would like
to propose the new term "welded" for the phonological sense. In the
short text below, I define (and discuss the relation between) the
terms "bound" and "welded".<br>
<br>
Since I don't know the literature on phonological wordhood (since
Roussel 1922) as well as some others on this list evidently know it,
my specific question is: Is there a prominent place in the
literature where the notion "phonologically bound" has been
introduced or defined? (If so, I may rethink my terminological
proposals.) <br>
<br>
The general question is: Are there better alternatives to what I am
proposing?<br>
<br>
Many thanks,<br>
Martin<br>
<br>
************************************<br>
<br>
<meta name="Title" content="">
<p class="MsoNormal"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight:normal"><span
lang="EN-US">Bound
forms and welded forms: Two basic concepts of grammar<br>
</span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b>(possible future blogpost)</b><br>
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight:normal"><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Linguists often try to
characterize affixes
in terms of a notion of “<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight:normal">boundness</b>”,
as
in this passage of the Wikipedia article “affix”:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left:21.3pt"><i><span
style="mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New
Roman";mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman""
lang="EN-US">Lexical
affixes</span></i><span
style="mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"" lang="EN-US">
are bound elements that appear as
affixes, but function as </span><span lang="EN-US"><a
href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incorporated_noun"
title="Incorporated noun"><span
style="mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New
Roman";mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New
Roman"">incorporated
nouns</span></a></span><span
style="mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"" lang="EN-US">
within verbs</span><span lang="EN-US"> <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">But what exactly is meant by
“bound”? Is it
just a synonym of “attached” (as in Wikipedia’s definition of
affix: </span><span style="mso-fareast-font-family:"Times
New Roman";mso-bidi-font-family:
"Times New Roman"" lang="EN-US">“an <span
style="mso-bidi-font-weight:bold">affix</span> is
a </span><span lang="EN-US"><a
href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme"><span
style="mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"">morpheme</span></a></span><span
style="mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New
Roman";mso-bidi-font-family:
"Times New Roman"" lang="EN-US"> that is attached to a
word </span><span lang="EN-US"><a
href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stem_%28linguistics%29"
title="Stem (linguistics)"><span
style="mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"">stem</span></a></span><span
style="mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New
Roman";mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman""
lang="EN-US">
to form a new word or word form”), and are both terms just
informal ways of
saying that an affix <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight:normal">occurs
together</b>
with a stem?<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span
style="mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span
style="mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"" lang="EN-US">But
if so, what is the difference
between an affix occurring together with a stem, and <b
style="mso-bidi-font-weight:
normal">a verb occurring together with an object nominal</b>?
Linguists don’t
normally say that objects are bound to their verbs, but in what
sense is an
affix bound but an object nominal is not bound?<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span
style="mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span
style="mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"" lang="EN-US">This
seems like a very basic question,
but linguists do not have consistent answers to this question.
The first answer
they give often involves the notion of <b
style="mso-bidi-font-weight:normal">“word”</b>,
but linguists have not found a general way of identifying words
across
languages (as I noted in a 2011 article). If at all, words can
be characterized
in terms of a more basic concept such as “bound”, it seems, not
the other way
round.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span
style="mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span
style="mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"" lang="EN-US">So
here I would like to make a proposal
how to use the term <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight:normal">“bound”,</b>
which
also involves the introduction of a new term <b
style="mso-bidi-font-weight:
normal">“welded”</b>. Basically, I propose that <b
style="mso-bidi-font-weight:
normal">a bound form is one that cannot occur in isolation, </b>while
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight:normal">a welded form is one that
shows segmental
phonological interaction </b>with its neighbour.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span
style="mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span
style="mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"" lang="EN-US">For
example, the English preposition <i
style="mso-bidi-font-style:normal">from</i>, the possessive
pronoun <i style="mso-bidi-font-style:normal">my</i>, and the
definite article <i style="mso-bidi-font-style:normal">the</i>
are bound forms. Consider the
following contrasts:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span
style="mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span
style="mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"" lang="EN-US">(1)
<span style="mso-tab-count:1"> </span>a.<span
style="mso-tab-count:1"> </span>The dog went through
the fence.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span
style="mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"" lang="EN-US"><span
style="mso-tab-count:1"> </span>b.<span
style="mso-tab-count:1"> </span>The dog went through.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span
style="mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span
style="mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"" lang="EN-US"><span
style="mso-tab-count:1"> </span>c.<span
style="mso-tab-count:1"> </span>The cat jumped from
the table.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span
style="mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"" lang="EN-US"><span
style="mso-tab-count:1"> </span>d.<span
style="mso-tab-count:1"> </span>*The cat jumped from.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span
style="mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span
style="mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"" lang="EN-US">(2)<span
style="mso-tab-count:1"> </span>a.<span
style="mso-tab-count:1"> </span>I saw Kim’s bike.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span
style="mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"" lang="EN-US"><span
style="mso-tab-count:1"> </span>b.<span
style="mso-tab-count:1"> </span>I saw Kim’s.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span
style="mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span
style="mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"" lang="EN-US"><span
style="mso-tab-count:1"> </span>c.<span
style="mso-tab-count:1"> </span>She found my
umbrella.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span
style="mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"" lang="EN-US"><span
style="mso-tab-count:1"> </span>d.<span
style="mso-tab-count:1"> </span>*She found my.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span
style="mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span
style="mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"" lang="EN-US">(3)<span
style="mso-tab-count:1"> </span>a.<span
style="mso-tab-count:1"> </span>We like those caps.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span
style="mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"" lang="EN-US"><span
style="mso-tab-count:1"> </span>b.<span
style="mso-tab-count:1"> </span>We like those.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span
style="mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span
style="mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"" lang="EN-US"><span
style="mso-tab-count:1"> </span>c.<span
style="mso-tab-count:1"> </span>He bought the cap.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span
style="mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"" lang="EN-US"><span
style="mso-tab-count:1"> </span>d.<span
style="mso-tab-count:1"> </span>*He bought the. (‘He
bought it.’)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span
style="mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span
style="mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"" lang="EN-US">Of
course, most forms that are written
as affixes are also bound, but as the examples (1)-(3) show, not
all forms that
are written separately are <b
style="mso-bidi-font-weight:normal">free</b> in
the sense that they can occur on their own.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span
style="mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span
style="mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"" lang="EN-US">This
meaning of the term <i style="mso-bidi-font-style:normal">bound</i>
goes back to Bloomfield (1933),
and it has become particularly well-known through Arnold
Zwicky’s work on
clitics. Zwicky’s famous (1977) paper distinguishes three
classes of elements:
simple clitics, special clitics, and <b
style="mso-bidi-font-weight:normal">bound
words</b>. The most widely cited paper that proposes criteria
for
distinguishing between clitics and affxes, Zwicky & Pullum
(1983), begins
as follows:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span
style="mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"
style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none;
text-autospace:none"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family:Times"
lang="EN-US">“Two
types of bound morphemes are found attached to (free) words in
many languages:
clitics and affixes”<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"
style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none;
text-autospace:none"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family:Times"
lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"
style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none;
text-autospace:none"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family:Times"
lang="EN-US">Affixes
are always thought of as parts of words, while clitics are
generally thought of
as words. Thus, the notion of boundness cross-cuts the
distinction between
words and parts of words. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"
style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none;
text-autospace:none"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family:Times"
lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"
style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none;
text-autospace:none"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family:Times"
lang="EN-US">In the
discussions about wordhood that I often have with fellow
grammarians, they
often mention <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight:normal">phonological
interaction</b>:
Some elements interact phonologically with their neighbours,
while others
don’t. Some contrasts are given in (4)-(6). I propose to say
that the forms in
(b) are <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight:normal">welded</b>,
while those in (a)
are not.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"
style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none;
text-autospace:none"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family:Times"
lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"
style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none;
text-autospace:none"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family:Times"
lang="EN-US">(4)<span style="mso-tab-count:1"> </span>a.<span
style="mso-tab-count:1"> </span>my
pear / my apple<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"
style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none;
text-autospace:none"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family:Times"
lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-tab-count:1"> </span>b.<span
style="mso-tab-count:1"> </span>a
pear / an apple<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"
style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none;
text-autospace:none"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family:Times"
lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"
style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none;
text-autospace:none"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family:Times"
lang="EN-US">(5)<span style="mso-tab-count:1"> </span>a.<span
style="mso-tab-count:1"> </span>German<span
style="mso-tab-count:1"> </span>film-te<span
style="mso-tab-count:
1"> </span>/ golf-te<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"
style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none;
text-autospace:none"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family:Times"
lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-tab-count:1"> </span>b.<span
style="mso-tab-count:1"> </span>English<span
style="mso-tab-count:1"> </span>film-ed [-d] /
golf-ed [-t]<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"
style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none;
text-autospace:none"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family:Times"
lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"
style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none;
text-autospace:none"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family:Times"
lang="EN-US">(6)<span style="mso-tab-count:1"> </span>a.<span
style="mso-tab-count:1"> </span>good
/ good-ness<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"
style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none;
text-autospace:none"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family:Times"
lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-tab-count:1"> </span>b.<span
style="mso-tab-count:1"> </span>mortal
[-əl] / mortal-ity [-æl-iti]<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"
style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none;
text-autospace:none"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family:Times"
lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"
style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none;
text-autospace:none"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family:Times"
lang="EN-US">In
(4)-(5), we see that some (but not all) of the bound forms have
different
phonological variants depending on phonological properties of
their host, and
in (6b), we see that the host can have different phonological
variants depending
on whether it combines with a bound form or not. A bound form is
<b>welded</b> to its host if it shows different variants
depending on the shape of the host or if the host shows
different variants depending on the shape of the bound form.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"
style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none;
text-autospace:none"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family:Times"
lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"
style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none;
text-autospace:none"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family:Times"
lang="EN-US">So
clearly, <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight:normal">boundness</b>
and <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight:normal">weldedness</b> are
different properties of
linguistic form: A form may be bound but not welded (e.g.
English <i style="mso-bidi-font-style:normal">my</i>, -<i
style="mso-bidi-font-style:normal">ness</i>,
German -<i style="mso-bidi-font-style:normal">te</i>), or a form
may be both
bound and welded (e.g. English <i
style="mso-bidi-font-style:normal">a/an</i>,
-<i style="mso-bidi-font-style:normal">ed</i> [-t/-d]).<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"
style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none;
text-autospace:none"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family:Times"
lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"
style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none;
text-autospace:none"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family:Times"
lang="EN-US">Can a
form be <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight:normal">welded but not
bound</b>? No,
this is excluded by definition: If a form can be used both on
its own and in combination
with a bound form, and if it has a different shape when combined
with the bound
form, then we do not say that the form as such is welded. For
example, the
English verb <i style="mso-bidi-font-style:normal">write</i>
can be used on its
own (e.g. as an imperative), and when the agent noun suffix <i
style="mso-bidi-font-style:normal">-er</i> is added, it may
have a different
shape (with flapped <i style="mso-bidi-font-style:normal">r</i>):
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style:normal">wri</i>[ɾ]-<i
style="mso-bidi-font-style:
normal">er</i>. Thus, -<i style="mso-bidi-font-style:normal">er</i>
is a welded
form, but we would not want to say that <i
style="mso-bidi-font-style:normal">write</i>
is a welded form.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"
style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none;
text-autospace:none"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family:Times"
lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"
style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none;
text-autospace:none"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family:Times"
lang="EN-US">Some
linguists use a different term for what I am calling “welded”
here:
“phonologically bound”. This seems to occur fairly frequently,
but unlike the
use of “bound” in the sense “free-standing”, it does not seem to
have a clear
pedigree.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
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<pre class="moz-signature" cols="72">--
Martin Haspelmath (<a class="moz-txt-link-abbreviated" href="mailto:haspelmath@shh.mpg.de">haspelmath@shh.mpg.de</a>)
Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History
Kahlaische Strasse 10
D-07745 Jena
&
Leipzig University
Institut fuer Anglistik
IPF 141199
D-04081 Leipzig
</pre>
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