<div><div style="font-family:'doulos sil';font-size:12pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm"><span style="font-size:13pt">I would like to react to Kasper Boye’s summary of the “solutions to the problem of defining ‘grammatical’ on the market”.</span></div><div style="font-family:'doulos sil';font-size:12pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm"> </div><div style="font-family:'doulos sil';font-size:12pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm"><span style="font-size:13pt">There is also the good old solution of using obligatoriness for these purposes. It goes back to at least Jakobson and Boas, as expressed in the well-known quote by Jakobson “Languages differ essentially in what they _must_ convey and not in what they _may_ convey” (see <a href="https://linguistlist.org/issues/6/6-411.html">https://linguistlist.org/issues/6/6-411.html</a>). The criterion of obligatoriness results in a more restricted set of meanings being categorized as grammatical, as compared to Boye & Harder (2012)’s criterion of conventionalized secondary discourse prominence. Notably, it excludes the meanings of derivational morphemes. Boye & Harder (2012) do discuss obligatoriness as one of the possible way of defining “grammatical”, but dismiss it for a number of reasons, for example precisely because it would exclude derivational morphemes. As this kind of objections had been around long before Boye & Harder (2012)’s paper, it so happened that I discussed why I do not find these objections valid in my (2008) paper on the concepts of grammaticalization and antigrammaticalization.</span></div><div style="font-family:'doulos sil';font-size:12pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm"> </div><div style="font-family:'doulos sil';font-size:12pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm"><span style="font-size:13pt">Obviously, there is no absolute truth here and the term, in this case “grammatical meaning”, will mean what we decide it to mean. However, using one criterion or another will have different implications. In practical terms, I personally find it useful to have a more restrictive definition of “grammatical meaning”, for example because it’s easier to apply consistently.</span></div><div style="font-family:'doulos sil';font-size:12pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm"> </div><div style="font-family:'doulos sil';font-size:12pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm"><span style="font-size:13pt">Best wishes,</span></div><div style="font-family:'doulos sil';font-size:12pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm"><span style="font-size:13pt">Dmitry</span></div><div style="font-family:'doulos sil';font-size:12pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm"> </div>--------<div style="font-family:'doulos sil';font-size:12pt;margin:0cm 0cm 8pt 0cm"><span style="font-size:13pt">Idiatov, Dmitry. 2008. Antigrammaticalization, antimorphologization and the case of Tura. In Elena Seoane, María José López-Couso & (in collaboration with) Teresa Fanego (eds.), <em>Theoretical and empirical issues in grammaticalization</em>, 151–169. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. doi: <a href="https://doi.org/10.1075/tsl.77.09idi">10.1075/tsl.77.09idi</a>.</span></div><div style="font-family:'doulos sil';font-size:12pt;margin:0cm 0cm 8pt 0cm"><span style="font-size:13pt">(accessible at: <a href="https://filesender.renater.fr/?s=download&token=24ecb7f0-3d5f-48ad-8da0-bd739bd16d95">https://filesender.renater.fr/?s=download&token=24ecb7f0-3d5f-48ad-8da0-bd739bd16d95</a> ; it’s also available from my website, but the server has been down for some time, hence this temporary link) </span></div></div><div> </div><div> </div><div>17.06.2020, 20:11, "Kasper Boye" <boye@hum.ku.dk>:</div><blockquote><div lang="EN-US"><div><p style="font-family:'times new roman' , serif;font-size:12pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm">Dear all,</p><p style="font-family:'times new roman' , serif;font-size:12pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm"> </p><p style="font-family:'times new roman' , serif;font-size:12pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm">I would like to first respond to David Gil’s comment on the problems of defining grammatical, then to follow up on Jürgen Bohnemeyer’s ideas about the job grammatical items do.</p><p style="font-family:'times new roman' , serif;font-size:12pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm"> </p><p style="font-family:'times new roman' , serif;font-size:12pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm">There are a couple of solutions to the problem of defining ”grammatical” on the market. One is Christian Lehmann’s (2015) structural definition in terms of autonomy; another one is Peter Harder’s and my own functional and usage-based definition (to which I think Bohnemeyer was referring in his initial message) in terms of conventionalized secondary discourse prominence (or backgroundedness) (Boye & Harder 2012; references below). Both definitions bring together morphosyntactic and semantic properties of being grammatical. For instance, being by convention backgrounded (that is, being conventionally associated with background meaning only) entails being dependent on a host expression: a background requires a foreground.</p><p style="font-family:'times new roman' , serif;font-size:12pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm"> </p><p style="font-family:'times new roman' , serif;font-size:12pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm">Based on our 2012 definition, Peter and I are currently working in the same direction (book in prep.) as Bohnemeyer. As we see it, the raison d’être for grammatical items is that they offer a shortcut to meaning, which may be inferable from the context: knowing by conventions is faster than inferring from context, even if inferencing is guided by expectations (cf. Lehmann’s remark earlier in this thread). In fact, they offer a cheap shortcut: representing background information they can be processed rather superficially and thus quickly by the hearer.</p><p style="font-family:'times new roman' , serif;font-size:12pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm"> </p><p style="font-family:'times new roman' , serif;font-size:12pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm">Looking now at grammatical items from the speaker perspective, it is clear that the production of grammatical items requires an extra effort. Not only does it require something extra to produce a grammatical item than not to produce anything, recent studies suggest that grammatical items are in fact a little harder to produce than lexical ones (e.g. Michel Lange et al. 2015; Nielsen et al. 2019). This may be seen as a consequence of their dependency: when you produce a grammatical item, you also have to consider which host expression to attach it to.</p><p style="font-family:'times new roman' , serif;font-size:12pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm"> </p><p style="font-family:'times new roman' , serif;font-size:12pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm">If we now look at grammatical items from the speaker and hearer perspective at the same time, a rather sympathetic picture of human communication emerges, a picture that can be characterized in terms of the notion of ‘audience design’: the speaker invests a little extra production resources so that the hearer can save a little processing resources. </p><p style="font-family:'times new roman' , serif;font-size:12pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm"> </p><p style="font-family:'times new roman' , serif;font-size:12pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm">Why then do languages differ when it comes to the amount of grammatical morphemes? Well, firstly evolution is not optimizing, but satisficing, and we can easily live without grammatical morphemes (our forefathers probably did; cf. Hurford 2012) – it puts an extra burden on inferencing, but we are quite good at inferencing. Secondly, phonologically concrete morphemes are not the only kind of grammatical items we have. Also construction grammar’s schematic constructions qualify as grammatical items: they are conventionalized as carriers of background info.</p><p style="font-family:'times new roman' , serif;font-size:12pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm"><strong> </strong></p><p style="font-family:'times new roman' , serif;font-size:12pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm">With best wishes,</p><p style="font-family:'times new roman' , serif;font-size:12pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm">Kasper</p><p style="font-family:'times new roman' , serif;font-size:12pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm"><strong> </strong></p><p style="font-family:'times new roman' , serif;font-size:12pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm"><strong>References</strong></p><p style="font-family:'times new roman' , serif;font-size:12pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm"><span style="color:black">Boye, K. & P. Harder. (2012). A usage-based theory of grammatical status and grammaticalization. <em>Language</em> 88.1. 1-44. </span></p><p style="font-family:'times new roman' , serif;font-size:12pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm"><span style="color:black">Link: </span> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/41348882.pdf">https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/41348882.pdf</a></p><p style="font-family:'times new roman' , serif;font-size:12pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm"> </p><p style="font-family:'times new roman' , serif;font-size:12pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm">Hurford, J.R. (2012). <em>The origins of grammar: Language in the light of evolution</em>. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</p><p style="font-family:'times new roman' , serif;font-size:12pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm"> </p><p style="font-family:'times new roman' , serif;font-size:12pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm">Lehmann, Christian. 2015. <em>Thoughts on grammaticalization</em>, 3rd ed. Berlin, Germany: Language Science Press.</p><p style="font-family:'times new roman' , serif;font-size:12pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm"> </p><p style="font-family:'times new roman' , serif;font-size:12pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm"><span lang="DA">Michel Lange, V., M. Messerschmidt, P. Harder, H.R. Siebner & K. Boye. </span>(2017). Planning and production of grammatical and lexical verbs in multi-word messages. <em>PLoS ONE</em> 12.11. e0186685. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0186685"> https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0186685</a></p><p style="font-family:'times new roman' , serif;font-size:12pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm"> </p><p style="font-family:'times new roman' , serif;font-size:12pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm"><span lang="DA">Nielsen, S.R., K. Boye, R. Bastiaanse & V. Michel Lange. </span>2019. The production of grammatical and lexical determiners in Broca’s aphasia. <em>Language, Cognition and Neuroscience</em>, DOI: 10.1080/23273798.2019.1616104.</p><p style="font-family:'times new roman' , serif;font-size:12pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm">Link: <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/23273798.2019.1616104"> https://doi.org/10.1080/23273798.2019.1616104</a></p><p style="font-family:'times new roman' , serif;font-size:12pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm"> </p><p style="font-family:'times new roman' , serif;font-size:12pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm"> </p><p style="font-family:'times new roman' , serif;font-size:12pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm"><span style="font-family:'verdana' , sans-serif;font-size:10pt"> </span></p><p style="font-family:'times new roman' , serif;font-size:12pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm"><span style="font-family:'verdana' , sans-serif;font-size:10pt"> </span></p><div><div style="border-style:solid none none none;border-top-color:#e1e1e1;border-width:1pt medium medium medium;padding:3pt 0cm 0cm 0cm"><p style="font-family:'times new roman' , serif;font-size:12pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm"><strong><span lang="DA" style="font-family:'calibri' , sans-serif;font-size:11pt">Fra:</span></strong><span lang="DA" style="font-family:'calibri' , sans-serif;font-size:11pt"> Lingtyp <<a href="mailto:lingtyp-bounces@listserv.linguistlist.org">lingtyp-bounces@listserv.linguistlist.org</a>> <strong>På vegne af </strong>David Gil<br /><strong>Sendt:</strong> 17. juni 2020 14:14<br /><strong>Til:</strong> <a href="mailto:lingtyp@listserv.linguistlist.org">lingtyp@listserv.linguistlist.org</a><br /><strong>Emne:</strong> Re: [Lingtyp] Innovation of functional categories</span></p></div></div><p style="font-family:'times new roman' , serif;font-size:12pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm"> </p><p style="font-family:'times new roman' , serif;font-size:12pt;margin-left:0cm;margin-right:0cm">Dear Juergen and all,</p><p style="font-family:'times new roman' , serif;font-size:12pt;margin-left:0cm;margin-right:0cm">My favourite example of an innovation of functional categories comes from some Malayic dialects of central Sumatra — see references below. For the most part, Malayic languages are completely devoid of functional categories; however, in some parts of central Sumatra, culminating in Kerinci, a system has developed whereby almost every word in the language has two forms, absolute and oblique, formally distinguished by complex rules of ablaut. The functions of the absolute/oblique alternation are also complex, but I'll mention just one of them, since it ties in to earlier discussion in this thread about the development of articles: in phrase final position, a noun will typically occur in the absolute, however, if it takes the oblique form it is interpreted as definite. McKinnon et al trace the historical development of the absolute/oblique alternation in terms of a coalescence of two separate developments: (a) the grammaticalization of erstwhile phrase-final phonological alternations; and (b) the phonological attraction of an erstwhile free form<em> </em>(cognate to Standard Malay <em>nya</em>). Comparative evidence suggests that these developments are very recent, and since there are no non-Malayic languages in the vicinity that would form the basis for a contact explanation, it seems pretty clear that the absolute/oblique alternation constitutes an internally-motivated development of a functional category.</p><p style="font-family:'times new roman' , serif;font-size:12pt;margin-left:0cm;margin-right:0cm">Best,</p><p style="font-family:'times new roman' , serif;font-size:12pt;margin-left:0cm;margin-right:0cm">David</p><p style="font-family:'times new roman' , serif;font-size:12pt;margin-left:0cm;margin-right:0cm"> </p><p style="font-family:'times new roman' , serif;font-size:12pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 27pt;text-align:justify;text-indent:-27pt">McKinnon, Timothy (2011) <em>The morphophonology and morphosyntax of Kerinci Word-shape alternations</em>, PhD Dissertation, University of Delaware, Newark.</p><p style="font-family:'times new roman' , serif;font-size:12pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 27pt;text-align:justify;text-indent:-27pt">McKinnon, Timothy, Peter Cole and Gabriella Hermon (2011) Object agreement and ‘pro-drop’ in Kerinci Malay, <em>Language</em> 87.4:715–750.</p><p style="font-family:'times new roman' , serif;font-size:12pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 27pt;text-align:justify;text-indent:-27pt">McKinnon, Timothy, Gabriella Hermon, Yanti and Peter Cole (2018) "From Phonology to Syntax: Insights from Malay", in H. Bartos, M. den Dikken, Z. Bánreti and T. Varadi eds., <em>Boundaries Crossed, at the Interfaces of Morphosyntax, Phonology, Pragmatics and Semantics</em>, Studies in Natural Language and Linguistic Theory 94, Springer, Berlin, 349-371. DOI: <a href="https://eur02.safelinks.protection.outlook.com/?url=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1007%2F978-3-319-90710-9_22&data=02%7C01%7Cboye%40hum.ku.dk%7C5d42ac30942d4c4bfc1f08d812b9d498%7Ca3927f91cda14696af898c9f1ceffa91%7C0%7C0%7C637279936632718068&sdata=o75MhMmKt3ms77Q%2FQMQwj0PE9NGJNlzfcjr8faMrzGY%3D&reserved=0"> 10.1007/978-3-319-90710-9_22</a></p><p style="font-family:'times new roman' , serif;font-size:12pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 27pt;text-align:justify;text-indent:-27pt">McKinnon, Timothy, Yanti, Peter Cole and Gabriella Hermon (2015) "Infixation and Apophony in Malay: Description and Developmental Stages", <em>Linguistik Indonesia</em> 33.1:1-19.</p><p style="font-family:'times new roman' , serif;font-size:12pt;margin-left:0cm;margin-right:0cm"> </p><p style="font-family:'times new roman' , serif;font-size:12pt;margin-left:0cm;margin-right:0cm"> </p><div><p style="font-family:'times new roman' , serif;font-size:12pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm">On 16/06/2020 04:48, Bohnemeyer, Juergen wrote:</p></div><blockquote style="margin-bottom:5pt;margin-top:5pt">
<pre style="font-family:'courier new';font-size:10pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm">Dear colleagues — I’m looking for examples of innovations of functional categories. By ‘functional categories’, I mean the ‘grammatical categories’ of traditional grammar, such as tense, mood, person, gender, case, etc. I propose a more technical definition below. </pre>
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<pre style="font-family:'courier new';font-size:10pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm">Here is what I mean by ‘innovation’: language families or genera in which the functional expression in question is (i) grammaticalized in one or more members or branches while (ii) being absent in others, with (iii) the balance of evidence pointing to acquisition in the former languages/branches rather than loss in the latter, and (iv) there being no obvious contact-based explanation for the emergence of the expression in question. (Of course one could define innovation to include contact-based innovation, but I happen to be specifically interested in innovation of functional categories in the absence of contact models.)</pre>
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<pre style="font-family:'courier new';font-size:10pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm">I realize of course that certainty about (iii) and (iv) is in many if not most cases not to be had. Consider for illustration the emergence of definite articles in Western Europe (Celtic, Romance, Germanic) during the “Dark Ages”. In this case, we can be certain that this was an innovation event due to the presence of historical records both from ancestors of some of the Indo-European languages that developed articles and from ancestors of those that didn’t. But when and where this innovation started, and what role (if any) contact with languages from outside Western Europe, such as Ancient Greek, Hebrew, and Arabic, may have played, appears to continue to be unclear. </pre>
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<pre style="font-family:'courier new';font-size:10pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm">It is possible if not likely that some of the clearest examples of innovations of functional categories arise in creole languages. Of interest here would be creoles that have grammaticalized a functional category not present in either the lexifier or any substrate or adstrate language. </pre>
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<pre style="font-family:'courier new';font-size:10pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm">As a working definition, functional expressions in general (a superordinate category of functional categories in the narrow sense) might be defined as (i) morphemes that (ii) do not belong to any major lexical category, but (iii) enter into fully productive and compositional combinations with (projections of) members of lexical categories. This very broad and general characterization would encompass a host of subtypes. Of great interest to me is the observation that these subtypes are not uniform in how commonly they are grammaticalized vs. missing in the languages of the world. Some functional expressions, such as negation, occur in every single human language. Some, such as adnominal or adverbial expressions of quantification, apparently are present in all languages except for languages that rely on complex predicative workarounds (existential predication for existential quantification, conditional-like structures for universal quantification). </pre>
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<pre style="font-family:'courier new';font-size:10pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm">Contrast this with the subtype of functional expressions I’m particularly interested in here, such as tense, viewpoint aspect, definiteness, number, and gender, which are typically present in only between a third and two thirds of the samples of the WALS chapters that report on them. My hypothesis is that this difference in variability correlates with the communicative function of the expressions: expressions such as tense, number, and gender are typically (in the great majority of utterances in which they occur) not needed to express part of the speaker’s communicative intention, as the information they contribute is predictable in context. The grammaticalization of such largely redundant expressions apparently serves to reduce the hearer’s inference load. </pre>
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<pre style="font-family:'courier new';font-size:10pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm">This gradual pragmatic redundancy is from my perspective a defining feature of the class of expressions in question. Obviously, this doesn’t translate into a simple diagnostic. However, it aligns with relatively advanced degrees of grammaticalization (compared to things such as negation, demonstratives, or modals), and advanced grammaticalization in turn jibes with the primarily metalinguistic function of the expressions in question: they are always backgrounded, never express “at issue” content, and as a result can never be focalized except metalinguistically. </pre>
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<pre style="font-family:'courier new';font-size:10pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm">I hope that wasn’t too convoluted ;-)</pre>
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<pre style="font-family:'courier new';font-size:10pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm">Thank you in advance for your help! I will post a summary if I receive a sufficient number of responses. — Best — Juergen</pre>
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</blockquote><pre style="font-family:'courier new';font-size:10pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm">-- </pre><pre style="font-family:'courier new';font-size:10pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm">David Gil</pre><pre style="font-family:'courier new';font-size:10pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm"> </pre><pre style="font-family:'courier new';font-size:10pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm">Senior Scientist (Associate)</pre><pre style="font-family:'courier new';font-size:10pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm">Department of Linguistic and Cultural Evolution</pre><pre style="font-family:'courier new';font-size:10pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm">Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History</pre><pre style="font-family:'courier new';font-size:10pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm">Kahlaische Strasse 10, 07745 Jena, Germany</pre><pre style="font-family:'courier new';font-size:10pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm"> </pre><pre style="font-family:'courier new';font-size:10pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm">Email: <a href="mailto:gil@shh.mpg.de">gil@shh.mpg.de</a></pre><pre style="font-family:'courier new';font-size:10pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm">Mobile Phone (Israel): +972-556825895</pre><pre style="font-family:'courier new';font-size:10pt;margin:0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 0cm">Mobile Phone (Indonesia): +62-81344082091</pre></div></div>,<p>_______________________________________________<br />Lingtyp mailing list<br /><a href="mailto:Lingtyp@listserv.linguistlist.org">Lingtyp@listserv.linguistlist.org</a><br /><a href="http://listserv.linguistlist.org/mailman/listinfo/lingtyp">http://listserv.linguistlist.org/mailman/listinfo/lingtyp</a></p></blockquote>