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Dear Ion, there was an exchange on this matter of answer particles/expressions on lingtyp years ago. Here below is what I could recover, in case this sort of thing is useful for you.
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<div class="">And a title you might want to consult: it’s Edith’s PhD thesis and the syntax she assumed (those were the days …) was almost as baroque as Anders Holmberg’s.<br class="">
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<div style="margin: 0cm -1.1pt 0.0001pt 15pt; text-indent: -14pt; line-height: 115%;" class="">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family:Times" class="">Moravcsik, Edith A. (1971). Some cross-linguistic generalizations about yes-no questions and their answers.
<i class="">Working Papers on Language Universals</i> 7: 45-193.<o:p class=""></o:p></span></div>
<!--EndFragment--> </div>
<div class=""><br class="">
</div>
<div class=""><br class="">
</div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">5 Apr 2006</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class=""><br class="">
</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">for light entertainment in between the colours:</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">Is anybody out there aware of wide-range comparative etymological work on words (well, sentences) meaning YES and NO which shows that these items are, or were, morphologically complex?</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">This question has come up in recent discussion (most recently at the Leipzig Rara event) of a paper by Johan van der Auwera (et al) on person-number inflection (or clitics) being extended to YES/NO, as in Dutch
JAA-N-SE yes-AGR-they 'yes, they do'.</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">French OUI 'yes' was complex, supposedly deriving from HOC ILLE.</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">English YES is another one, deriving from YEA SIE 'yes, so it be'.</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">Or German NEIN, deriving from NOT ONE.</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">What are possible sources? And is such morphological complexity destined to quickly become opaque with such words/sentences?</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">Frans Plank</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class=""><br class="">
</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class=""><br class="">
</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">5 Apr 2006</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class=""><br class="">
</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">Here are three different types of source:</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">Hebrew KEN and Spanish, Italian etc. SI both come from 'thus'.</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">For 'no' one would expect languages to have euphemisms, like Turkish HAYIR 'no', an Arabic loan whose original meaning is 'good(ness)'.</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">The first syllable of Turkish EVET was probably an exclamation like 'huh', while the second syllable was an emphatic particle of Iranian origin.</span></div>
<div class=""><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">Marcel Erdal</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class=""><br class="">
</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class=""><br class="">
</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">5 Apr 2006</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class=""><br class="">
</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">Lieber Herr Plank,</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">um ein wenig zum light entertainment beizusteuern: russ. "net" kommt von </span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">"ne tu(t)" = "nicht hier" (reflektiert im umgangssprachl. "netu"). </span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">Spielt es für Sie eine Rolle, ob die Fragepartikel zugleich als </span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">negatives Existenzialverb ('nicht sein', 'nicht geben') fungiert? Das </span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">ist nämlich für Russ. der Fall. Vgl. z.B. lit. "ne°ra" von "ne + yra" = </span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">"NEG + ist (3 Präs. von "bu_ti" 'sein')., welches nur als negierter </span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">Existenzquantor verwendet wird (gegenüber "ne" = 'nein'), genauso wie </span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">poln. "nie" (vs. "nie ma" = 'es gibt nicht').</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">Mi schönen Grüssen,</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class=""> Björn Wiemer.</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class=""><br class="">
</span></div>
<div class=""><br class="">
</div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">5 Apr 2006</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class=""><br class="">
</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">More on complex forms of YES and NO, this time in Iranian:</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">In standard Persian, there are three ways of saying NO: /næ/ (Iranian), /xeyr/ (Arabic, see Marcel's note -- not very common by itself in Persian but does occur) and then the very frequent combination of both:
/næ-xeyr/.</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">YES has a similar pattern but only dialectally:</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">YES in standard Persian is /bæle/, an Arabic borrowing. The original Persian was probably /ha/. In the Persian dialects of south Iran, i.e., Persian as spoken in Fars province, they commonly used the combined
Persian + Arabic forms in /ha-bæle/ "yes". Thus both compound forms of NO and YES are of the type: /original Persian + borrowing/.</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">Don Stilo</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
</div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class=""><br class="">
</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class=""><br class="">
</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class=""><br class="">
</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">5 Apr 2006</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class=""><br class="">
</span></div>
<div class=""><font face="LucidaGrande" class="">Hungarian Igen 'yes' is cognate with Igaz ‘true'</font></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class=""><br class="">
</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">Denis Creissels</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class=""><br class="">
</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class=""><br class="">
</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">5 Apr 2006</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class=""><br class="">
</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">Just one Finno-Ugric example: Hungarian NEM 'no'</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">Proto-Finno-Ugric *nä 'this'+ *mi 'what?' > 'something' > (in Early</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">Proto-Hungarian negative sentences) 'nothing' > 'no'.</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">Marianne</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">Marianne Bakro-Nagy</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class=""><br class="">
</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class=""><br class="">
</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">5 Apr 2006</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class=""><br class="">
</span></div>
<div class=""><small style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class="">Dear Frans,<br class="">
<br class="">
</font></small><small style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class="">In the languages I know best (north Vanuatu, eastern
Solomons), </font></small><small style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class="">YES and NO work as follows:</font><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class=""><br class="">
</font></small><span style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""></span>
<div align="right" style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class="">
<blockquote class=""><font face="Verdana" class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" class="">*<small class="">You can find more information on these languages on my page (<a class="moz-txt-link-freetext" href="http://alex.francois.free.fr/">http://alex.francois.free.fr/</a>),
under 'Fieldwork'.</small></font></small></font><br class="">
</blockquote>
</div>
<br style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class="">
<small style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class="">1. First thing, the lighter form that corresponds to these 'sentential
signs' is usually that of an "intonational gesture" (hoping this is the right term). </font></small><small style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class=""><br class="">
[there are also facial gestures, which I won't detail here].</font></small><br style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class="">
<small style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class=""></font></small><span style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""></span>
<ul style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class="">
<li class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class="">YES will be a slightly elongated, though monosyllabic vowel [o] (or schwa), with a falling prosodic contour of the type 4>1*.</font></small><small class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class=""> <br class="">
Taking a tonal analogy, one may transcribe this as [<b class="">ô:</b>]</font></small><small class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class=""> -- this roughly sounds the same as the fourth tone of Mandarin Chinese</font></small><small class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class="">.</font></small></li><li class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class="">Its negative counterpart (which may be glossed NO) takes the form of a longer [o] (or schwa), following a three-syllable pitch contour: a high plateau followed by a low one and then
a final rise: something like 4+1+3. <br class="">
Taking a tonal analogy, one may roughly transcribe this as [</font></small><b class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class="">ó</font></small></b><small class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class=""><b class="">.ò.ó</b>].<br class="">
</font></small></li></ul>
<blockquote style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class="">
<blockquote class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class=""> *I'm using here a classical, though intuitive scale from 1 = extra-low to 5 = extra-high. Note that none of these languages is tonal.<br class="">
<br class="">
</font></small></blockquote>
</blockquote>
<small style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class="">2. There is a second, heavier equivalent to our NO, which takes a segmental
/ lexical form. <br class="">
</font></small><span style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""></span>
<blockquote style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class="">
<small class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class="">[NB: The phenomenon is much less observable for YES. In the affirmative, the sentence is generally repeated, as in <i class="">Did you go there? -- Mmm! I went there.</i>]</font></small><br class="">
</blockquote>
<blockquote style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class="">
<small class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class="">In all the languages of the area, this form 'No' is the same form as the negative existential predicate (henceforth <b class="">NegExist</b>) -- Engl. '<i class="">There isn't</i> [+Noun]' (or if
the subject is anaphoric, '<i class="">There's none</i>'.)</font></small><br class="">
<small class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class="">Thus compare, for a language called Lemerig (3 speakers, Vanua Lava):</font></small><br class="">
<small class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class=""></font></small></blockquote>
<blockquote style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class="">
<blockquote class=""><b class="">N-pé <u class="">niv</u>. ~ <u class="">Niv</u> pé.<br class="">
</b><b class=""><small class="">Art-water NegExist. </small></b><b class=""><small class="">NegExist water</small></b><br class="">
<small class="">'There is no water.'</small><br class="">
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<blockquote style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class="">
<blockquote class=""><b class="">N-pé pän? -- Óòó, (<i class="">n-pé</i>) <u class="">niv</u>.<br class="">
<small class="">Art-water Exist (no) (</small></b><b class=""><small class=""><i class="">Art-water</i>) </small></b><b class=""><small class="">NegExist<br class="">
</small></b><small class="">'Is there any water? -- No, there isn't any.'</small><br class="">
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<blockquote style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class="">
<blockquote class=""><b class="">Näk m-van 'i lé wongon? -- Óòó, <u class="">niv</u>.<br class="">
<small class="">2sg Preter1-go Pret2 Locative beach (no) NegExist<br class="">
</small></b><small class="">'Did you go to the beach? -- No, I didn't.'</small><br class="">
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<blockquote style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class="">
<font face="Verdana" class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" class="">Note the perfect parallels in Bislama </font><font color="#000000" class="">(</font><font color="#000000" class="">the English-lexifier pidgin of Vanuatu), with <i class="">Nogat</i>
[<Eng. <i class="">no + got</i> 'have not']:</font></small></font><br class="">
</blockquote>
<blockquote style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class="">
<blockquote class=""><b class="">Wora i <u class="">nogat</u></b><b class="">. ~ (I) <u class="">nogat</u> wora.</b><b class=""><u class=""></u><br class="">
<small class="">water Pred NegExist. Pred NegExist water<br class="">
</small></b><small class="">'There is no water.'</small><br class="">
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<blockquote style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class="">
<blockquote class=""><b class="">Wora i gat? -- </b><b class="">Óòó, </b><b class=""> (wora) i <u class="">nogat</u>.<br class="">
</b><b class=""><small class="">water Pred Exist (no) (</small></b><b class=""><small class=""><i class="">water</i>) </small></b><b class=""><small class="">Pred NegExist</small></b><br class="">
<small class="">'Is there any water? -- No, there isn't any.'</small><br class="">
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<blockquote style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class="">
<blockquote class=""><b class="">Yu bin go long sanbij? -- Óòó, </b>(*i)<b class=""> <u class="">nogat</u>.<br class="">
<small class="">2sg Preter go Locative beach (no) </small></b><small class="">(*Pred)</small><b class=""><small class=""> NegExist<br class="">
</small></b><small class="">'Did you go to the beach? -- No, I didn't.'</small><br class="">
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<font face="Verdana" style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" class=""> In Solomon Pijin, the form is</font><font color="#000000" class=""> <i class="">Nomoa</i>
[<Eng. <i class="">no + more</i> 'not any more'].</font></small></font><br style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class="">
<font face="Verdana" style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" class=""><br class="">
Almost all of the 20 Oceanic languages on which I have first-hand data behave the same. In a way, they illustrate your query, since they have a NO form that has its own meaning and syntax, apart from being a sentential word.<br class="">
However, in almost all these languages, you can't really say that the NO word is morphologically complex, since it consists essentially of a single morpheme (glossed here NegExist): e.g. </font></small></font><font face="Verdana" style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" class="">Teanu <i class=""><b class="">tae</b></i>,
Tanema <i class=""><b class="">eia</b></i>, </font></small></font><font face="Verdana" style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" class="">Hiw <b class=""><i class="">tego</i></b>, </font></small></font><font face="Verdana" style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" class="">Mwotlap <i class=""><b class="">tateh</b></i></font></small></font><font face="Verdana" style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" class="">,
Lemerig <b class=""><i class="">niv</i></b></font></small></font><font face="Verdana" style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" class="">, Vurës <b class=""><i class="">odiang</i></b></font></small></font><font face="Verdana" style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" class="">,
Vera'a <i class=""><b class="">gitag</b></i></font></small></font><font face="Verdana" style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" class="">, Mwesen <b class=""><i class="">eneng</i></b>, </font></small></font><font face="Verdana" style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" class="">Nume/</font></small></font><font face="Verdana" style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" class="">Dorig/Koro <i class=""><b class="">bek</b></i>, </font></small></font><font face="Verdana" style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" class="">Mwerlap <b class=""><i class="">tégé</i></b>…<br class="">
<br class="">
Yet in two languages, Olrat and Lakon, the word is morphologically analysable as prefixed with a Stative aspect: <i class=""><b class="">ga iv</b></i> /Stative/NegExist/.<br class="">
</font></small></font><font color="#000000" style="font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><font face="Verdana" class=""><br class="">
<br class="">
</font></font><font face="Verdana" style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" class="">3. More interestingly, two languages show a morphologically complex
form for 'No':</font></small></font><br style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class="">
<ul style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class="">
<li class=""><font face="Verdana" class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" class="">In Lo-Toga, 'No' is <i class=""><b class="">tate-gë</b></i>, analysable as /tate/ 'NegExist' + /gë/ 'thing' = '<i class="">there is nothing</i>'.<br class="">
<br class="">
</font></small></font></li></ul>
<ul style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class="">
<li class=""><font face="Verdana" class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" class="">In Araki, 'No = NegExist' is <i class=""><b class="">mo ce re</b></i>, analysable as /mo/ '3rd.pers. Realis' + /ce/ 'Negation' + /re/ 'Partitive' = '<i class="">not
any</i>'.<br class="">
</font></small></font></li></ul>
<blockquote style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class="">
<blockquote class=""><font face="Verdana" class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" class="">[NB: for Araki, see p.65 of my Grammar: </font></small></font><br class="">
<font face="Verdana" class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" class=""> François, Alexandre. 2002. <i class="">Araki: A disappearing language of Vanuatu.</i>Pacific Linguistics, 522. Canberra: Australian National University. 375 pp.]</font></small></font><br class="">
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<hr size="2" width="100%" style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class="">
<font face="Verdana" style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" class="">This is probably too detailed for what you were after. <br class="">
But some of the information may be helpful to you?<br class="">
<br class="">
Best regards,<br class="">
<br class="">
Alex FRANÇOIS.</font></small></font><br style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class="">
</div>
<div class=""><font face="Verdana" style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" class=""><br class="">
</font></small></font></div>
<div class=""><font face="Verdana" style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" class=""><br class="">
</font></small></font></div>
<div class=""><br class="">
</div>
<div class=""><font face="Verdana" style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" class=""><br class="">
</font></small></font></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">5 Apr 2006 </span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class=""><br class="">
</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">Hi everybody</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">Russian "da" seems to be non-derived, while Russian "net" is historically complex, derived from "not is here" (at least according to Vasmer, who seems to follow the tradition); the latter etymology is completely
opaque to the speakers, synchronically.</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">Bagvalal (Andian, Nakh-Daghestanian) uses negative copula for 'no' and ananalyzable (at least synchronically) one phoneme word for 'yes' (and some words also having other usages, as 'then').</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">Archi (Lezgic, Nakh-Daghestanian) uses negative copula for 'no', too.</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">In the Caucasus what apparently is a non-phonological click is also commonly used for 'no'.</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">Michael Daniel</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class=""><br class="">
</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class=""><br class="">
</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class=""><br class="">
</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">5 Apr 2006</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class=""><br class="">
</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class=""><br class="">
</span></div>
<div class="">
<blockquote type="cite" style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">Is anybody out there aware of wide-range comparative etymological work on<br class="">
words (well, sentences) meaning YES and NO which shows that these items<br class="">
are, or were, morphologically complex?<br class="">
</blockquote>
<br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">No way :-)!</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class=""><br class="">
</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">Larry [Hyman]</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class=""><br class="">
</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class=""><br class="">
</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class=""><br class="">
</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">5 Apr 2006</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class=""><br class="">
</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">There is a paper about the typology of "yes" and "no" in the Journal of</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">Linguistics Anthropology </span><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">of arond 5 years back. Not so much about te etymology, if I remember well, </span><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">but
more about </span><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">the form of the words - recurrent phonemes across languages. It had a </span><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">complicated title </span><font face="LucidaGrande" class="">with
a neologism in it. It may provide information about Frans’ question </font><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">as well.</span></div>
<div class=""><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">Peter [Bakker]</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class=""><br class="">
</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class=""><br class="">
</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">6 Apr 2006</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class=""><br class="">
</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">Michael Daniel wrote:</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">"In the Caucasus what apparently is a non-phonological click is also </span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">commonly used for 'no'."</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">This is probably Ottoman in origin, as it is used in Greek, Turkish and Levantine dialects of Arabic. In none of those languages, however, is it the only way of saying "no"; it is thus more akin to English "hunh-unh"
for "no".</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">Steve Hewitt</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class=""><br class="">
</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class=""><br class="">
</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class=""><br class="">
</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">6 Apr 2006</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class=""><br class="">
</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">Some more points.</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">1. One small comment from a colleague, Timur Maisak - negative clicks are different, the click is lateral in Bagvalal (and likely in some other Avar-Andian langauges?), while apical in Agul (and likely in some
other Lezgic languages). This may actually correlate with the phonological structure of the language - Bagvalal has a rich set of laterals while it is not so in Agul.</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">2. Stephen Hewitt just made a remark that made me re-thinking the original query by Frans.</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">It is true that both Archi and Bagvalal, and probably other Nakh-Daghestanian, have a "grammatical" and "phonologically behaving" ways of sayin 'no' (in the case of Archi and Bagvalal this is the negative copula).
Thus, non-phonological clicks are indeed something like huh-uh (hunh-unh?) in English. However, they are probably used wider; at least the Russian interjection parallel to the English one both phonetically (something like a sequence of two glottal stops) and
functionally seems more limited. Which makes me to speculate a bit further.</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">Maybe, negative copulas, although used in this functions, are a bit too grammatical to be the main negative reaction reply in these languages (as if we would claim that "it isn't" is one of the English 'no's)?
In other words, roughly speaking, is it not the case that languages tend to have an unanalyzable 'no'?</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">Which, historically, would support Frans's idea that languages tend to make ways of saying 'no's opaque as quick as possible.</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">Michael Daniel</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class=""><br class="">
</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class=""><br class="">
</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">6 Apr 2006</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class=""><br class="">
</span></div>
<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">Dear Frans,</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">Maybe, the following quote from L.R. Trask, The History of Basque</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">(Routledge, 1997, p. 209) on the word 'yes' in Basque is of interest to you</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">(italics suppressed, emphasis by means of capitals added by SE):</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">"The word bai 'yes' is doubtless related to the affirmative morph ba-, as</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">in badator 'he/she's coming', formerly 'he/she IS coming'; bai may well be</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">an ancient verb-form, along the lines of 'it is so', possibly involving the</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">root -di- of the archaic verb *edin."</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">Best,</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
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<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">Stig [Eliasson]</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
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<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">6 Apr 2006</span></div>
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<div class=""><small style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class=""><small class="">(<i class="">sorry this is going to be
a bit long</i>)</small><br class="">
<br class="">
Dear all,<br class="">
<br class="">
</font></small><small style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class="">Let me mention here the situation in a few Oceanic languages
from north Vanuatu & eastern Solomons. </font></small><small style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class=""><small class=""><br class="">
[</small></font></small><font face="Verdana" style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" class=""><small class="">See my page <a class="moz-txt-link-freetext" href="http://alex.francois.free.fr/AF-field.htm">http://alex.francois.free.fr/AF-field.htm</a> for
a list and a map of these languages]</small></font></small></font><br style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class="">
<font face="Verdana" style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" class=""><small class=""><br class="">
</small></font></small></font><span style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""></span>
<div align="right" style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class="">
</div>
<small style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class="">YES and NO work as follows. <br class="">
Basically, we get a twofold strategy similar to that mentioned for Caucasus languages by Michael Daniel and Stephen Hewitt: that is, the equivalent of YES and NO take both the form of a</font></small><small style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class=""> "vocal
gesture" (if this is the right term)</font></small><small style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class=""> and of lexical
material [see below]. </font></small><small style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class="">There are also facial gestures,
which I won't describe here, but which of course are worth of mention.</font></small><br style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class="">
<small style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class=""><br class="">
</font></small><span style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""></span>
<ul style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class="">
<li class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class="">In the affirmative, you generally combine the gesture with</font></small><small class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class=""> the sentence repeated, <br class="">
something like <i class="">Did you go there? -- Mmm! I went there.</i> In this case, I guess we would say that the equivalent of YES is the vocal gesture</font></small><small class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class=""> (although this may be discussed).<br class="">
<br class="">
</font></small></li><li class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class="">Things are less clearcut for NO, since we get both the gesture and a specific single-word sentence used for negative statements. </font></small><small class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class="">Both
strategies (gestural and lexical) are used in similar contexts for similar purposes [though there are slight pragmatic nuances, which I won't detail here]. <br class="">
When they are combined, which is often the case, the gestural NO comes first and the lexical second: see in the Lemerig example below “</font><b class="">Óòó, niv!</b></small><small class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class="">”. Incidentally, it
would be interesting to check if this is always the case in other languages (gestural NO comes before lexical NO).<br class="">
We may compare this twofold NO-sentence with a sequence “<b class="">Unhun, no</b>!” in English, thus suggesting that the equivalent to NO is really /</font></small><small class=""><b class="">niv</b></small><small class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class="">/;
but we might as well point to the English sequence “<b class="">No, I didn't</b>” -- thus suggesting /</font></small><small class=""><b class="">Óòó</b></small><small class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class="">/ = NO and </font></small><small class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class="">/</font></small><small class=""><b class="">niv</b></small>/<small class=""><font color="#000000" class=""> <font face="Verdana" class="">=
“I didn't” (and I agree with Michael that the latter construction can be regarded as one of English 'NO's). </font></font></small><br class="">
</li></ul>
<small style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class="">Unless we come up with a stricter definition of what should be understood
as "<i class="">equivalents to YES and NO</i>", I see no strong reason for deciding which one is the exact equivalent of English NO. </font></small><small style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class="">So
let's consider for the moment that both /</font></small><small style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><b class="">Óòó</b></small><small style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class="">/
and /</font></small><small style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><b class="">niv</b></small><small style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class="">/
equally constitute equivalents to NO, as they both can form (whether separately or combined) a well-formed utterance showing the speaker's disagreement with the content of a preceding question / claim / presupposed proposition, etc.<br class="">
<br class="">
</font></small><small style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class=""><br class="">
</font></small><span style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""></span>
<hr size="2" width="100%" style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class="">
<small style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class="">Now, if we get back to the Oceanic forms:<br class="">
<br class="">
1. The vocal gesture normally takes the form of a vowel</font></small><small style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class=""> with
a specific pitch contour. [no clicks]. <br class="">
The vowel is /<b class="">o</b>/ in 17 languages, and schwa in the two languages</font></small><small style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class=""> (Lo-Toga
and Hiw)</font></small><small style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class=""> that possess schwa in their vowel inventory.</font></small><br style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class="">
<ul style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class="">
<li class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class="">YES will be a slightly elongated, though monosyllabic vowel, with a falling prosodic contour of the type 4>1*</font></small><small class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class=""> --
this roughly sounds the same as the fourth tone of Mandarin Chinese</font></small><small class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class="">.</font></small><small class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class=""> <br class="">
Taking a tonal analogy, one may transcribe this as [<b class="">ô:</b>]</font></small><small class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class="">.</font></small></li></ul>
<blockquote style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class="">
<blockquote class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class=""> (*I'm using here intuitively a scale from 1 = extra-low to 5 = extra-high. Note that none of these languages is tonal.)</font></small></blockquote>
</blockquote>
<ul style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class="">
<li class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class="">Its negative counterpart takes the form of a longer vowel, following a three-syllable pitch contour: a high plateau followed by a low one and then a final rise: something like 4+1+3. <br class="">
Taking a tonal analogy, one may roughly transcribe this as [</font></small><b class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class="">ó</font></small></b><small class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class=""><b class="">.ò.ó</b>]. In
the examples below, It will appear as /</font></small><small class=""><b class="">Óòó</b></small><small class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class="">/.<br class="">
</font></small></li></ul>
<blockquote style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class="">
<blockquote class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class=""><br class="">
</font></small></blockquote>
</blockquote>
<small style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class="">2. As for the lexical equivalent to our NO: </font></small><br style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class="">
<blockquote style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class="">
<small class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class="">In all the languages of the area, the lexical form 'No' is the same form as the negative existential predicate (henceforth <b class="">NegExist</b>) -- Engl. '<i class="">There isn't</i> [+Noun]'
(or if the subject is anaphoric, '<i class="">There's none</i>'.)</font></small><br class="">
<small class=""><font color="#000000" face="Verdana" class="">Thus compare, for a language called Lemerig (3 speakers, Vanua Lava):</font></small><br class="">
</blockquote>
<blockquote style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class="">
<blockquote class=""><b class="">N-pé <u class="">niv</u>. ~ <u class="">Niv</u> pé.<br class="">
</b><b class=""><small class="">Art-water NegExist. </small></b><b class=""><small class="">NegExist water</small></b><br class="">
<small class="">'There is no water.'</small><br class="">
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<blockquote style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class="">
<blockquote class=""><b class="">N-pé pän? -- Óòó, (<i class="">n-pé</i>) <u class="">niv</u>.<br class="">
<small class="">Art-water Exist (no) (</small></b><b class=""><small class=""><i class="">Art-water</i>) </small></b><b class=""><small class="">NegExist<br class="">
</small></b><small class="">'Is there any water? -- No, there isn't any.'</small><br class="">
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<blockquote style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class="">
<blockquote class=""><b class="">Näk m-van 'i lé wongon? -- Óòó, <u class="">niv</u>.<br class="">
<small class="">2sg Preter1-go Pret2 Locative beach (no) NegExist<br class="">
</small></b><small class="">'Did you go to the beach? -- No, I didn't.'</small><br class="">
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<blockquote style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class="">
<font face="Verdana" class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" class="">Note the perfect parallels in Bislama </font><font color="#000000" class="">(</font><font color="#000000" class="">the English-lexifier pidgin of Vanuatu), with <i class="">Nogat</i>
[<Eng. <i class="">no + got</i> 'have not']:</font></small></font><br class="">
</blockquote>
<blockquote style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class="">
<blockquote class=""><b class="">Wora i <u class="">nogat</u></b><b class="">. ~ (I) <u class="">nogat</u> wora.</b><b class=""><br class="">
<small class="">water Pred NegExist. Pred NegExist water<br class="">
</small></b><small class="">'There is no water.'</small><br class="">
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<blockquote style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class="">
<blockquote class=""><b class="">Wora i gat? -- </b><b class="">Óòó, </b><b class=""> (wora) i <u class="">nogat</u>.<br class="">
</b><b class=""><small class="">water Pred Exist (no) (</small></b><b class=""><small class=""><i class="">water</i>) </small></b><b class=""><small class="">Pred NegExist</small></b><br class="">
<small class="">'Is there any water? -- No, there isn't any.'</small><br class="">
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<blockquote style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class="">
<blockquote class=""><b class="">Yu bin go long sanbij? -- Óòó, </b>(*i)<b class=""> <u class="">nogat</u>.<br class="">
<small class="">2sg Preter go Locative beach (no) </small></b><small class="">(*Pred)</small><b class=""><small class=""> NegExist<br class="">
</small></b><small class="">'Did you go to the beach? -- No, I didn't.'</small><br class="">
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<font face="Verdana" style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" class=""> In Solomon Pijin, the form is</font><font color="#000000" class=""> <i class="">Nomoa</i>
[<Eng. <i class="">no + more</i> 'not any more'].</font></small></font><br style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class="">
<font face="Verdana" style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" class=""><br class="">
Almost all of the Oceanic languages on which I have first-hand data behave the same. In a way, they illustrate your query, since they have a NO form that has its own meaning and syntax, apart from being a sentential word.<br class="">
However, in almost all these languages, you can't really say that the NO word is morphologically complex, since it consists essentially of a single morpheme (glossed here NegExist): e.g. </font></small></font><font face="Verdana" style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" class="">Teanu <i class=""><b class="">tae</b></i>,
Tanema <i class=""><b class="">eia</b></i>, </font></small></font><font face="Verdana" style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" class="">Hiw <b class=""><i class="">tego</i></b>, </font></small></font><font face="Verdana" style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" class="">Mwotlap <i class=""><b class="">tateh</b></i></font></small></font><font face="Verdana" style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" class="">,
Lemerig <b class=""><i class="">niv</i></b></font></small></font><font face="Verdana" style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" class="">, Vurës <b class=""><i class="">odiang</i></b></font></small></font><font face="Verdana" style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" class="">,
Vera'a <i class=""><b class="">gitag</b></i></font></small></font><font face="Verdana" style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" class="">, </font></small></font><font face="Verdana" style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" class="">Mwesen <b class=""><i class="">eneng</i></b>, </font></small></font><font face="Verdana" style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" class="">Mota <i class=""><b class="">tagai</b></i>, </font></small></font><font face="Verdana" style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" class="">Nume/</font></small></font><font face="Verdana" style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" class="">Dorig/Koro <i class=""><b class="">bek</b></i>, </font></small></font><font face="Verdana" style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" class="">Mwerlap <b class=""><i class="">tégé</i></b>…<br class="">
<br class="">
In two languages, Olrat and Lakon, the word is morphologically analysable as prefixed with a Stative aspect: <i class=""><b class="">ga iv</b></i> /Stative/NegExist/.<br class="">
</font></small></font><font color="#000000" style="font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><font face="Verdana" class=""><br class="">
<br class="">
</font></font><font face="Verdana" style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" class="">3. More interestingly, two languages (other than Bislama and Pijin
mentioned earlier) show a morphologically complex form for 'No':</font></small></font><br style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class="">
<ul style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class="">
<li class=""><font face="Verdana" class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" class="">In Araki, 'No = NegExist' is <i class=""><b class="">mo ce re</b></i>, analysable as /mo/ '3rd.pers. Realis' + /ce/ 'Negation' + /re/ 'Partitive' = '<i class="">not
any</i>'.<br class="">
</font></small></font></li></ul>
<blockquote style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class="">
<blockquote class=""><small class=""><font face="Verdana" class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" class="">[see p.65 of: </font></small></font><font face="Verdana" class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" class="">François, Alexandre. 2002. <i class="">Araki:
A disappearing language of Vanuatu.</i> Pacific Linguistics, 522. Canberra: Australian National University.]</font></small></font></small> <br class="">
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<ul style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class="">
<li class=""><font face="Verdana" class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" class="">In Lo-Toga, 'No' is <i class=""><b class="">tate-gë</b></i>, analysable as /tate/ 'NegExist' + /gë/ 'thing' = '<i class="">there is nothing</i>'.<br class="">
<br class="">
</font></small></font></li></ul>
<hr size="2" width="100%" style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class="">
<font face="Verdana" style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class=""><small class=""><font color="#000000" class=""><br class="">
<br class="">
Best regards,<br class="">
<br class="">
Alex.</font></small></font><br style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class="">
<br style="caret-color: rgb(102, 51, 0); color: rgb(102, 51, 0); font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" class="">
</div>
<div class=""><br class="">
</div>
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<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">6 Apr 2006</span></div>
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<div class=""><span style="caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 153); color: rgb(0, 0, 153); font-family: "Arial Unicode MS"; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);" class="">Dear all,</span><br style="caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 153); color: rgb(0, 0, 153); font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";" class="">
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<span style="caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 153); color: rgb(0, 0, 153); font-family: "Arial Unicode MS"; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);" class="">here a little bit of brain storming, nothing more. Alex' wonderful presentation of the Oceanic data as well as
Michael's remarks on East Caucasian remind me of a talk Theo Vennemann (Munich) once gave at our University. He talked abot the yes/no patterns in Europe dwelling upon the question whether the distribution of languages with yes/no-'words' (e.g. German) and
those with positive/negative sentential echoes ('(s)he did/n't, it is/n't etc. with many variants) (e.g. Celtic with impacts on Old English etc.) is more than just coincidental. I do not want to go into the details here, but Theo's talk has raised the question
whether a) yes/no-strategies are a universal of language at all, whether b) the lexicalization of yes/no-words has common pathways in the languages of the world. Naturally, the discussion did not come to any defnite conclusion, still it made me thinking of
the following: </span><br style="caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 153); color: rgb(0, 0, 153); font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";" class="">
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<span style="caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 153); color: rgb(0, 0, 153); font-family: "Arial Unicode MS"; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);" class="">For methodological reasons, we should clearly distinguish between what Alex has called vocal gestures and yes/no-words
or yes/no-constructions. Vocal gestures seem to be sound symbolic in nature, and it would be highly interesting to collect a larger typological sample of vocal yes/no-gestures to see whether they share common features (both for their semantics and their 'form').
For instance, I do not think that it is just coincidental that in Alex examples, [ô] has a falling contour tone (> 'yes'), whereas [óòó] ends with a final rise (> 'no'). This correlates with the general observation that a falling prosodic pattern is frequently
associated with the expression of certainty, whereas a final rising pattern indicates uncertainty etc. (compare German [jà] 'yes' (certain) vs. [já] 'is it really so? I doubt / am amazed, wonder' (uncertain). The natural outcome of 'uncertainty' in a communicative
situation seems to be some kind of (graded) 'negation' (e.g. S1: I will go! S2: Do you? (I don't think so) > 'no') [by the way, this observation correponds to the well-known relationship between negation and interrogation]. This way, a vocal gesture indicatiing
'no' can at least in parts be derived from its 'positive' counterpart. On the other hand, the expression of 'no' does not seem to be an obligatory technique to negate the utterance of a speaker. We can also do without, compare: S1: I will go to the market.
S2: You stay here! Here, negation emerges from the use of more or less antonymic expressions. A vocal gesture may then support and strengthen this antonymic expression, leading to some kind of negative assertion. Interestingliy enough, such vocal gestures
seem to have their own formal patterns, as can be seen for instance from the paralinguistic usage of clicks (see WALS, map 142). For instance, some German speakers know the use of the dento-alveolar click in the sense of 'no' only if it is reduplicated, whereas
it expresses amazement when spoken out more than two times. Likewise in German, we have the combination ['m-'m] (' = glottal stop with nasalization) to indicate 'no', but the simple form ['m] does not work at all. The same holds for German ['ä/n-'ä/n] (/n
= slight nazalization). I am left with the impression that vocal gestures have their proper patterns which may be both universal and particularized in nature. </span><br style="caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 153); color: rgb(0, 0, 153); font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";" class="">
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<span style="caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 153); color: rgb(0, 0, 153); font-family: "Arial Unicode MS"; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);" class="">I do not know whether the same holds for vocal gestures expressing 'yes'. In German, we have a form ['`m´m`m] ('m
with high-low-high) which indicates some kind of 'yes' (and which clearly goes against what I have said above for the opposition [ô] vs. [óòó]), but that's another issue). Else, we sometimes see the combination of a laryngeal + vowel (often a back vowel),
e.g. [ho] in Udi (East Caucasian) or Georgian. There are -as far as I can see - no such constraints on simple vs. reduplicated etc. </span><br style="caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 153); color: rgb(0, 0, 153); font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";" class="">
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<span style="caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 153); color: rgb(0, 0, 153); font-family: "Arial Unicode MS"; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);" class="">The lexical expression of yes/no may have sometimes evolved from vocal gestures, though I do not know of any language
that has for instance lexicalized (and grammaticalized) the type of paralinguistic clicks mentioned above. Interestingly enough, yes-words seem to be much more transparent as for their etymology than no-words. This holds especially if the yes-word does not
stem from a vocal gesture. Sources may be for instance modal deictic terms ('so', 'thus' etc.), terms related to 'truth'-concepts and so on. No-words are often taken from or derived from a verbal negator, which makes me think that many no-words reflect older
echoe-techniques mentioned above. But then we arrive at the question, where verbal negators stem from. In a number of languages, we can reconstruct a verbal negator for the protolanguage (e.g. IE *ne, Southern East Caucasian *t:e etc.) which illustrates that
verbal negators often are rather old in form (contrary to yes/no-words, which are frequently borrowings). But it is difficult to relate such a reconstructed negator to another meaning (thus claiming that such a negator has come about via metonymy, metaphorization
or the like). One option would be interrogative words/morphemes (e.g. is Turkish -mI- (negation and mI = interrogation just coincidental?), see above for this assumption (I know that people usually derive certain interrogative markers from a negative construction,
but must it be alwas this way?). </span><br style="caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 153); color: rgb(0, 0, 153); font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";" class="">
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<span style="caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 153); color: rgb(0, 0, 153); font-family: "Arial Unicode MS"; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);" class="">Best</span><br style="caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 153); color: rgb(0, 0, 153); font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";" class="">
<span style="caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 153); color: rgb(0, 0, 153); font-family: "Arial Unicode MS"; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);" class="">Wolfgang [Schulze]</span></div>
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<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">6 Apr 2006</span></div>
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<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">A question that has always interested me about 'yes'</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">and 'no' is how they are reported. In English it's</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">straightforward: you say 'he said no' or 'they said</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">yes'. In French the yes/no word is introduced by a</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">complementizer ('il a dit que oui), more specifically</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">by a complementizer otherwise reserved for finite</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">constructions, whereas in Italian the connecting word</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">is 'di' which is either the complementizer for</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">infinitival clauses or an item which introduces a</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">nominal (cf 'più intelligente di Giorgio' = 'more</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">intelligent than George'): thus 'ha detto di no' = 'he</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">said no'. But what about when the yes/no word is what</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">people have been calling a 'vocal gesture'? In English</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">reports of non-linguistic sounds are introduced by</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">'go' not 'say': thus "he went 'uh-uh'" not *he said</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">'uh-uh'. However, even if someone made a vocal</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">gesture, I think it would be reasonable to report it</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">as 'he said yes' meaning simply 'he gave his consent'.</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">But in English you can't say *'I believe yes/no'</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">whereas in Italian you can say 'credo di sì/no'.</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">How does reporting 'yes/no' words work in other</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">languages?</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">Nigel [Vincent]</span></div>
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<div class="">7 Apr 2006</div>
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<div class=""><font face="Verdana, Helvetica, Arial" class=""><span style="font-size: 12px;" class="">In Czech there are several ways of reporting yes/no utterances.<br class="">
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Note<br class="">
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<li class=""><font face="Verdana, Helvetica, Arial" class=""><span style="font-size: 12px;" class="">"yes" = ANO, colloquial JO (< German), NO (which seems to trouble Spanish visitors to Czechia for some reason) </span></font></li><li class=""><font face="Verdana, Helvetica, Arial" class=""><span style="font-size: 12px;" class="">"no" = NE, dialectal NE'E, bookish NIKOLI<br class="">
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First of all, there is a difference between clauses with a complementiser (the factual complementiser ZE) and those without any; I'm omitting diacritics in the examples:<br class="">
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1a. REKLA, ZE ANO "she said yes"<br class="">
1b. REKLA, ZE NE "she said no"<br class="">
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2a. REKLA ANO "she said “yes”"<br class="">
2b. REKLA NE "she said “no”"<br class="">
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I think the traditional distinction between ‘direct’ and ‘indirect’ speech captures the difference between (1) and (2) quite well. Option (1) is the regular way of reporting a yes/no utterance, while the absence of the complementiser in (2) appears to invoke
a greater immediacy of the reported event. It’s also used in contexts when the speaker puts a ‘metalinguistic focus’ on the reported utterance: one would use it when, for example, paralinguistic features of someone’s yes/no utterance are imitated, or when
reporting an institutionalised yes/no utterance, such as the “yes” (“I do”) of a wedding ceremony (2a’). Here there is even a neuter agreement of the possessive reflexive with the “yes” word, giving it a status of a ‘metalinguistic’ noun.<br class="">
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2a’. REKLA MU SVE ANO [she.said to.him REFL.POSS.NEU yes]<br class="">
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With cognition matrix predicates such as “think” or “believe” only option (1) is available. There are no complications of the English type (I THINK SO/NOT), so Czech is like Italian in this respect.<br class="">
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A third way to report a yes/no utterance is of course through a lexical verb such as “agree” (3), which however can also be used to report on a more elaborate event involving agreement or disagreement.<br class="">
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3a. SOUHLASILA “she agreed”<br class="">
3b. NESOUHLASILA “she didn’t agree”<br class="">
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Option (3), in addition to (1) but not (2), can be used when reporting a vocal yes/no gesture. A more explicit report on a vocal yes/no gesture would contain the verbs “say” or “do, make” (never “go”), no complementiser, and the vocal gesture itself (4). The
lack of the complementiser here is shared with the ‘direct’/’metalinguistic’ option (2).<br class="">
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4. REKLA/UDELALA (vocal.gesture) “she said/did (vocal.gesture)”<br class="">
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Viktor [Elsik]</span></font></div>
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<div class=""><font face="Verdana, Helvetica, Arial" class=""><span style="font-size: 12px;" class="">8 Apr 2006</span></font></div>
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<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">In Hungarian, there are two ways to report somebody's affirming or negating something.</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
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<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">1/ "He said yes-ACC.</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class=""> "He said no-ACC."</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">2/ "He said that yes-</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class=""> NOM."</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class=""> "He said that no-NOM."</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
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<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">Unlike English and like German, Hungarian does not routinely use sentential echoes (such as English "Yes, he did so.") although the construction is possible; e.g. "Yes, he acted in this way."</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">
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<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande;" class="">Best - Edith Moravcsik</span></div>
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<div class=""><font face="LucidaGrande" class="">16 Apr 2006</font></div>
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<div class=""><span style="font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);" class="">Dear Frans,</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);" class="">
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<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);" class="">Just back from 2 weeks (teaching) in Santiago de Compostela. I set a master's student on something like this topic ... Results are due a year from now</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);" class="">
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<span style="font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);" class="">Johan</span><br style="font-family: LucidaGrande; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);" class="">
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<div class="">[Still waiting. Frans]</div>
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<div class="">23 Aug 2006</div>
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Last April, there was an extended discussion on LINGTYP about the kinds of answers to yes-no questions that different languages use.</div>
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It would be interesting to see how the types of answers relate to the types of tags in tag questions. There appears to be some correlation. Thus, in English, a simple "yes" or "no" is not a "full answer" to a yes-no question, nor do they serve as tags - at
least not in the standard varieties. Ex:</div>
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Have you eaten dinner?</div>
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No, I haven't.</div>
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?No.</div>
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You have eaten dinner, haven't you?</div>
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?You have eaten dinner, no?</div>
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In Hungarian on the other hand, simple 'yes' or 'no' serves as an answer; 'no' can also be a tag but 'yes' cannot.</div>
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Edith </div>
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24 Aug 2006</div>
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<span style="caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 153); color: rgb(0, 0, 153); font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";" class="">Dear Edith,</span><br style="caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 153); color: rgb(0, 0, 153); font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";" class="">
<span style="caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 153); color: rgb(0, 0, 153); font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";" class="">Theo Vennemann once (2002) gave a lecture in Munich on the problem you have mentioned. He discussed the typology of yes/no-answers especially with respect
to the distribution of patterns in Europa hypothesizing that a Celtic substrat has motivated e.g. the English type of echo answers that again would have caused the the echoing tag type. To better account for the details from a typological perspective, it would
make sense to 'classify' the different tag types and see a) whether their internal structure is matched in echo answers and b) whether a certain type of tags necesserily calls for a specific answer type. Personally, I would start from a template similar to
the following (surely not comprehensive):</span><br style="caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 153); color: rgb(0, 0, 153); font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";" class="">
<br style="caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 153); color: rgb(0, 0, 153); font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";" class="">
<span style="caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 153); color: rgb(0, 0, 153); font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";" class=""> Question Answer </span><br style="caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 153); color: rgb(0, 0, 153); font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";" class="">
<span style="caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 153); color: rgb(0, 0, 153); font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";" class=""> Tag Without 1. yes/no</span><br style="caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 153); color: rgb(0, 0, 153); font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";" class="">
<span style="caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 153); color: rgb(0, 0, 153); font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";" class=""> 2. echo</span><br style="caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 153); color: rgb(0, 0, 153); font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";" class="">
<span style="caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 153); color: rgb(0, 0, 153); font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";" class=""> 2.1 Based on dummy verbs (light verbs), eg. 'do, have' etc.</span><br style="caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 153); color: rgb(0, 0, 153); font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";" class="">
<span style="caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 153); color: rgb(0, 0, 153); font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";" class=""> 2.2 Based on the echoing of the full verb</span><br style="caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 153); color: rgb(0, 0, 153); font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";" class="">
<span style="caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 153); color: rgb(0, 0, 153); font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";" class="">Tag Present</span><br style="caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 153); color: rgb(0, 0, 153); font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";" class="">
<span style="caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 153); color: rgb(0, 0, 153); font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";" class=""> 1. yes/no</span><br style="caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 153); color: rgb(0, 0, 153); font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";" class="">
<span style="caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 153); color: rgb(0, 0, 153); font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";" class=""> 2. only yes</span><br style="caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 153); color: rgb(0, 0, 153); font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";" class="">
<span style="caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 153); color: rgb(0, 0, 153); font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";" class=""> 3. only not</span><br style="caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 153); color: rgb(0, 0, 153); font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";" class="">
<span style="caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 153); color: rgb(0, 0, 153); font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";" class=""> 4. internal echo</span><br style="caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 153); color: rgb(0, 0, 153); font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";" class="">
<span style="caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 153); color: rgb(0, 0, 153); font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";" class=""> 4.1 Based on dummy verbs (light verbs) e.g. 'do, have' etc.</span><br style="caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 153); color: rgb(0, 0, 153); font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";" class="">
<span style="caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 153); color: rgb(0, 0, 153); font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";" class=""> 4.2 Based on the echoing of the full verb</span><br style="caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 153); color: rgb(0, 0, 153); font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";" class="">
<br style="caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 153); color: rgb(0, 0, 153); font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";" class="">
<span style="caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 153); color: rgb(0, 0, 153); font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";" class="">The question internal tags should further be classified according to the question wether it is negate a positive assumption / asserts a negative assumption
(> contradiction), or whether it matches the polarity. In addition, it might be crucial to observe which constituents are copied into a tag-like answer (as well into the tag itself). In English, we clearly see an accusative startegy, copying S and A into the
answer (plus dummy verb), but 'fading out' O (nad IO etc.). In ergative strategies, the oppostite may occasionally be true.</span><br style="caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 153); color: rgb(0, 0, 153); font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";" class="">
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<span style="caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 153); color: rgb(0, 0, 153); font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";" class="">Best wishes,</span><br style="caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 153); color: rgb(0, 0, 153); font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";" class="">
<span style="caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 153); color: rgb(0, 0, 153); font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";" class="">Wolfgang</span></div>
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24 Aug 2006</div>
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A follow-up to Wolfgang's posting. By chance I had an email from Theo a few days ago. He is giving the latest version of his yes/no paper at the ICEHL conference in Bergamo tomorrow. Abstract available at: <a href="http://www.unibg.it/14icehl" class="">www.unibg.it/14icehl</a><br class="">
Nigel</div>
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