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<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">Dear Christian,<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">Jan Rijkhoff already mentioned the FDG approach to the issue you raise, and I’d like to elaborate on that approach a bit.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">Like the RRG approach that Jürgen mentioned, FDG is a layered approach to language, but its layers are defined in semantic and pragmatic rather than in syntactic terms.
Five of those layers are, informally defined:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">C: Communicated Content – the message that is being transmitted in a speech act<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">p: Propositional Content – the mental construct underlying that message<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">ep: Episode – a coherent combination of States-of-Affairs<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">e: State of Affairs – the event or state designated<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">s: Situational Property: the type of State-of-Affairs designated<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">These layers form a nested structure: (C: (p: (ep: (e: (s) (e)) (ep)) p)) (C))<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">By peeling of layers of this nested structure a classification of complement (or adverbial) clauses is arrived at:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">(C: (p: (ep: (e: (s) (e)) (ep)) p)) (C)) e.g. Indirect speech predicates<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">(p: (ep: (e: (s) (e)) (ep)) p)) e.g. Propositional attitude predicates<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">(ep: (e: (s) (e)) (ep)) e.g. Commentative predicates<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">(e: (s) (e)) e.g. Predicates of immediate perception<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">(s) e.g. Aspectual predicates<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">The way to determine whether a complement clause designates e.g. a Propositional Content, an Episode, or a State of Affairs is to check whether in a complement clause
certain TMA categories or adverbial categories are allowed, that are associated with certain layers, for instance:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">C: reportativity
<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">p: inferentiality<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">ep: Absolute tense<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">e: Relative tense<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">s: Aspect<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">Given this association with layers, the following facts can be understood:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">Reportativity:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">John said [Peter reportedly left].<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">*John thinks [Peter reportedly left].<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">Inferentiality<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">John thinks [Peter must have left].<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">*John regrets [that Peter must have left].<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">Absolute tense:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">John regrets [that Peter left yesterday].<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">*John saw [Peter having left yesterday]<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">etc<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">In work on adverbial clauses (Hengeveld 1998) I show that the lower the layer that underlies a certain type of adverbial clause is, the more likely it is to be expressed
by a dependent verb form. In Dik & Hengeveld (1990), Hengeveld et al. (2019), and in unpublished work the same is shown for complement clauses.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">Layering is not the only factor involved in the expression of subordinate clauses. Two other major factors that are discussed in the papers mentioned are factuality
and presupposition.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">Best wishes,<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">Kees
<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">Hengeveld, Kees (1998), Adverbial clauses in the languages of Europe. In: Johan van der Auwera ed.,
<i>Adverbial constructions in the languages of Europe</i> (Empirical approaches to language typology/Eurotyp 20-3), 335-419. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">Hengeveld, Kees & Braga, Maria Luiza & de Souza, Edson Rosa Francisco & Vendrame, Valéria (2019), Perception verbs in Brazilian Portuguese: A functional approach.
<i>Open Linguistics</i> 5, 268–310. DOI: <a href="https://doi.org/10.1515/opli-2019-0016">
https://doi.org/10.1515/opli-2019-0016</a>.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">Hengeveld, Kees (in prep.), Complementation in Functional Discourse Grammar.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt">Kees Hengeveld<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:12.0pt"><a href="http://www.keeshengeveld.nl/"><span lang="NL" style="color:#0563C1">www.keeshengeveld.nl</span></a></span><span style="font-size:12.0pt"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://uva-live.zoom.us/my/keeshengeveld"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;color:#0563C1;border:none windowtext 1.0pt;padding:0cm;background:white">https://uva-live.zoom.us/my/keeshengeveld</span></a><span style="font-size:12.0pt;color:black;border:none windowtext 1.0pt;padding:0cm;background:white"> </span><span style="font-size:12.0pt"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">From:</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> Lingtyp <lingtyp-bounces@listserv.linguistlist.org>
<b>On Behalf Of </b>Christian Lehmann<br>
<b>Sent:</b> maandag 8 mei 2023 10:36<br>
<b>To:</b> lingtyp@listserv.linguistlist.org<br>
<b>Subject:</b> [Lingtyp] what is designated by a complement clause<o:p></o:p></span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
<p style="margin-bottom:0cm">Dear colleagues,<o:p></o:p></p>
<p style="margin-bottom:0cm">as a non-specialist in these matters, I have always been struggling with the distinction between what Lyons 1977 (<i>Semantics</i>) calls second-order and third-order entities. They are also called situations (a.k.a. events or states
of affairs) and thoughts (or propositions), resp. A complement clause may designate one or the other. For instance, the
<i>that</i> clause in ex. 1 designates a situation, the one of ex. 2 designates a thought (or at any rate, a third-order entity).<o:p></o:p></p>
<p style="margin-bottom:0cm">1) Linda saw that John arrived.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p style="margin-bottom:0cm">2) Linda said that John arrived.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p style="margin-bottom:0cm">In some cases, English grammar distinguishes these notions. For instance, the
<i>that</i> clause of ex. 1, but not the one of ex. 2, may be replaced by <i>John’s arrival</i>.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p style="margin-bottom:0cm">Besides such relatively clear cases, there are less clear ones.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p style="margin-bottom:0cm">3) Linda remembered reading the book.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p style="margin-bottom:0cm">4) Linda remembered to read the book.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p style="margin-bottom:0cm">Replacement by <i>perusal</i> seems to show (unless my English fails me) that the complement clause of ex. 3 designates a situation while the one of ex. 4 designates a thought. If so, the superordinate predicate would not always
determine the type of dependent clause.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p style="margin-bottom:0cm">Here is my question: Does anyone know of a generally applicable criterion or even a language-independent test frame which enables me to determine whether a given dependent clause designates a second-order or a third-order entity?
Or are there contexts which are indeterminate in principle or where the distinction does not apply? I would be very grateful for advice.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p style="margin-bottom:0cm">Yours as always,<o:p></o:p></p>
<p style="margin-bottom:0cm">Christian<o:p></o:p></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal">-- <o:p></o:p></p>
<p><span style="font-size:10.0pt;line-height:115%">Prof. em. Dr. Christian Lehmann<br>
Rudolfstr. 4<br>
99092 Erfurt<br>
<span style="font-variant:small-caps">Deutschland</span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:9.0pt">Tel.:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:9.0pt">+49/361/2113417<o:p></o:p></span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:9.0pt">E-Post:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:9.0pt"><a href="mailto:christianw_lehmann@arcor.de">christianw_lehmann@arcor.de</a><o:p></o:p></span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:9.0pt">Web:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:9.0pt"><a href="https://www.christianlehmann.eu/">https://www.christianlehmann.eu</a><o:p></o:p></span></p>
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