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<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">Dear All,<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">thanks to Daniel Ross for this nice overview (I suppose, it‘s not exhaustive). When I first read the message by Joseph Brooks which was focused on switch reference (and
languages far away from Europe), I was reluctant to send a reply, because the data which came to my mind is not related to switch reference, but to reported speech. But now Daniel pointed out more types of “stacking” of clausal connectives among which some
are not alien to at least some European languages, namely to languages in Europe’s east.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"> I have in mind cases in which a connective which is generally regarded as “declarative / default / standard / epistemically neutral complementizer” (like
Engl. <i>that</i>) combines with a morpheme which marks directive or optative speech acts. This occurs in all Slavic languages (and probably in other languages of Europe’s eastern half). Compare the following examples (quoted ad libitum from corpora) in which
the connectives are highlighted in bold; the first is the “complementizer”, the second the directive-optative marker (it almost always occurs with verbs in the indicative non-past):<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="PL" style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">Polish</span></b><span lang="PL" style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="PL" style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">(11a)
<i>Stary odpowiedział, <b>że niech </b>nawet w więzieniu zgnije</i>.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="PL" style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">
</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">‘The old man replied
<b>that</b> <b>may</b> he even rot in prison.’<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">
</span><span lang="PL" style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">(PNC)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="PL" style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">(11b)
<i>Gdy złożyłam papiery do szkoły artystycznej, mama <u>powiedziała</u> jedynie, <b>
że niech</b> się dzieje wola nieba i najlepiej poczekać na rezultaty</i>. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">‘When I submitted my papers to the art school, my mother only
<u>said</u> <b>that</b> <b>may </b>heaven's will be done and it would be best to wait for the results.’<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">(PNC; Gazeta Poznańska, 2005)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">Russian</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">(12a)
</span><i><span lang="CS" style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">On govoril ej, čtoby ne vydumyvala,
<b>čto pust’ </b>pol’zuetsja vsem, čem nado</span></i><span lang="CS" style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="CS" style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"> ‘He told her not to invent, that she should use everything needed.’ (lit. ...<b><i>that may</i></b><i> she use.</i>..)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="CS" style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"> (RNC)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="CS" style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">(12b)
<i>Babuška, dumaja, <b>čto pust’</b> lučše lobotrjasy prixodjat k nim, čem Koka uxodit, každyj raz servirovala im stol s nenužnoj roskoš’ju</i>.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="CS" style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">
</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">‘</span><span lang="EN" style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">Grandmother, thinking<b> that</b> it would be better for loafers to come to them than for Koka to leave,
each time she served them a table with unnecessary luxury.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">’
<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">(lit. ‘… thinking
<b>that may</b> loafers come to them…’)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">(RNC;
</span><span lang="CS" style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">M. Gigolašvili:
</span><span lang="LT" style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">Čertovo
</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">koleso. 2007)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">Slovene</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">(13a)
<i>Rekel mi je, <b>da naj </b>vas </i></span><i><span lang="CS" style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">pričakam</span></i><span lang="CS" style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="CS" style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">
</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">‘He told me to pick you up.’ (lit.
<i>…<b>that may</b> I…</i>)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent:35.4pt"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">(</span><span style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"><a href="http://opus.nlpl.eu"><span lang="EN-US">http://opus.nlpl.eu</span></a><span lang="EN-US">)<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">(13b)
<i>V enem dopolnilu denimo <u>predlagajo</u>, <b>da naj</b> reden dodiplomski študij ostane brezplačen</i>.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"> ‘In one supplement, for example, they
<u>propose</u> that full-time undergraduate studies should remain free.’ (lit. ‘…
<b>that may</b> … remain free.’)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent:35.4pt"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">(Gigafida; 2001)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">The status of either element in such combinations is debatable. In particular, the second element has been variably treated as “mood marker” (auxiliary of 3<sup>rd</sup>
person imperatives), as “particle” (just marking directive or optative illocutions), or it can even be treated as an emergent complementizer (whose illocutionary force is in concord with the lexical meaning of some possible complement-taking element in the
preceding context, e.g. a verb denoting a directive speech act – see the examples above). Correspondingly, combinations like those above can be treated in different ways: (i) as complementizer + mood auxiliary, (ii) as double complementizer, (iii) as quotative
marker (THAT) + mood / illocutionary marker. Importantly, the directive marker (= second element) also occurs in independent clauses and just marks directive/optative speech acts, and examples as those above are typical in that they show reports of directive
(or optative) speech acts.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"> The entire problem has been treated in a couple of papers:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1515/slaw-2023-0012"><span lang="EN-US">https://doi.org/10.1515/slaw-2023-0012</span></a></span><span style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">
<span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"><a href="https://doi.org/10.5817/LB2023-1-1"><span lang="EN-US">https://doi.org/10.5817/LB2023-1-1</span></a></span><span style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">
<span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"><a href="https://journals.ispan.edu.pl/index.php/sm/article/view/sm.3194"><span lang="EN-US">https://journals.ispan.edu.pl/index.php/sm/article/view/sm.3194</span></a></span><span style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">
<span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">These cases can be subsumed under those which Daniel treats under 3(a) below, and I wonder whether they would count as “clause linker stacking”. Or should this expression
be limited to cases with switch reference?<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"> On this occasion, I’d be happy to learn whether such phenomena like those above (alleged COMP + DIR/OPT-marker, with debatable syntactic status) occur
in other regions and language groups of the world. I’d thus appreciate any information on that.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">Best,<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">Björn Wiemer.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-fareast-language:EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<div style="border:none;border-top:solid #E1E1E1 1.0pt;padding:3.0pt 0cm 0cm 0cm">
<p class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-size:11.0pt;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif">From:</span></b><span style="font-size:11.0pt;font-family:"Calibri",sans-serif"> Lingtyp <lingtyp-bounces@listserv.linguistlist.org>
<b>On Behalf Of </b>Daniel Ross via Lingtyp<br>
<b>Sent:</b> Sunday, February 2, 2025 7:40 AM<br>
<b>To:</b> Joseph Brooks <brooks.josephd@gmail.com>; Linguistic Typology <lingtyp@listserv.linguistlist.org><br>
<b>Subject:</b> Re: [Lingtyp] clause linker stacking/co-occurrence<o:p></o:p></span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal">Dear Joseph,<o:p></o:p></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal">One term for (at least some of) what you have described would be
<i>para-hypotaxis</i>, introduced to typology in this paper (following traditional usage for studies as especially a stylistic device in historical usage of European languages):<o:p></o:p></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal">Bertinetto, Pier Marco & Luca Ciucci. 2012. Parataxis, Hypotaxis and Para-Hypotaxis in the Zamucoan Languages. Linguistic Discovery 10(1). 89–111.
<a href="https://doi.org/10.1349/PS1.1537-0852.A.404" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1349/PS1.1537-0852.A.404</a><o:p></o:p></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal">Also surveyed cross-linguistically in this presentation:<o:p></o:p></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal">Ross, Daniel, Jesús Olguín Martínez & Luca Ciucci. 2018. Para-hypotaxis in the world’s languages: A cross-linguistic survey. Presented at Syntax of the World’s Languages (SWL) 8, INALCO, Paris, September 4, 2018.
<a href="https://swl8.sciencesconf.org/data/pages/Ross_etal_PH_SWL_1.pdf" target="_blank">
https://swl8.sciencesconf.org/data/pages/Ross_etal_PH_SWL_1.pdf</a><o:p></o:p></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal">Note that Amele switch-reference plus conjunctions is mentioned on slide 25.<o:p></o:p></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal">The typological survey is also discussed in chapter 3 of my dissertation:<o:p></o:p></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal">Ross, Daniel. 2021. Pseudocoordination, Serial Verb Constructions and Multi-Verb Predicates: The relationship between form and structure. University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign Ph.D. dissertation.
<a href="https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5546425" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5546425</a><o:p></o:p></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal">Specifically, para-hypotaxis is when parataxis/coordination and hypotaxis/subordination are overtly mixed in a single clause-combining strategy. By this definition, hypotaxis could include switch-reference marking plus a coordinator for
parataxis blended in the same construction.<o:p></o:p></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal">Note that other possible combinations of conjunctions or other markers of clause-combining are not strictly included in the definition of para-hypotaxis, including:<o:p></o:p></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal">1. Correlatives in general if we they aren't analyzed as "parataxis"+"hypotaxis".<o:p></o:p></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal">2. Doubling of coordinators, e.g. "and so", "and yet" in English, or wa lakin 'but' (lit. 'and but') in Arabic, or similarly conjunction pairs like "not only..... but...".<o:p></o:p></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal">3. Doubling of subordinators, e.g. preposition-related subordinators plus que 'that' in Spanish such as para que 'in order to' (lit. 'for that'). [Another analysis might be preferable here, but I just mentioned this for illustrative purposes.
There are probably better examples.] Even more broadly, we could consider for example subordinate moods (e.g. subjunctives) plus complementizers to be some kind of "doubling", or is that some kind of agreement, or something else?<o:p></o:p></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal">3b. There are also instances of subordinators combined with non-finite verbs (I think some of the examples summarized in Hannah's reply are probably of this type in the recent clause-chaining volume).<o:p></o:p></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal">3c. For example doubly-suffixed non-finite verb forms such as a nominalized verb form further suffixed with a case-like suffix for adverbial functions.<o:p></o:p></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal">On the diachrony of converbs related to (3c), and another mention of para-hypotaxis, see also:<o:p></o:p></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal">Ross, Daniel. 2025. The life cycle of converbs: A diachronic typology. In Paola Cotticelli-Kurras, Eystein Dahl & Jelena Živojinović (eds.), Diachronic, Typological, and Areal Aspects of Converbs, 317–360. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton.
<a href="https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111335551-012" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111335551-012</a><o:p></o:p></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal">There are definitional questions that come up when we try to categorize doubling (stacking, co-occurrence, etc.), which I think often suggest a diachronic perspective for analysis. For example, para-hypotaxis can be introduced via language
contact (e.g. in a language with clause-chaining plus borrowed conjunctions). Otherwise, whether it counts as "doubling" might depend on whether we consider form (two morphemes) or function (one clause-combining function, or more?).<o:p></o:p></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal">Daniel Ross<o:p></o:p></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal">UC Riverside<o:p></o:p></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal">On Fri, Jan 31, 2025 at 2:22<span style="font-family:"Arial",sans-serif"> </span>AM Joseph Brooks via Lingtyp <<a href="mailto:lingtyp@listserv.linguistlist.org" target="_blank">lingtyp@listserv.linguistlist.org</a>> wrote:<o:p></o:p></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:"Arial",sans-serif">Hi,<o:p></o:p></span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:"Arial",sans-serif"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:"Arial",sans-serif">I'm wondering if anyone could point me to any sources or have that report on clause linker stacking/co-occurrence of clause linkers in a single clause. Esp looking for examples from languages
with clause chaining and/or switch reference where linker stacking occurs in one or more constructions. (Unpublished examples also welcome).
<o:p></o:p></span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:"Arial",sans-serif"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:"Arial",sans-serif">Roberts' 1997 (137, 194) work on switch reference in languages of New Guinea claims that for languages with clause chaining, co-occurrence of markers is found exclusively in New Guinea, and even
then only in a handful of languages. Wade 1997 is the only paper I know of that focuses on this topic explicitly, for the Apalɨ language.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:"Arial",sans-serif"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:"Arial",sans-serif">Thanks,<o:p></o:p></span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:"Arial",sans-serif">Joseph<o:p></o:p></span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal">_______________________________________________<br>
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<a href="https://listserv.linguistlist.org/cgi-bin/mailman/listinfo/lingtyp" target="_blank">https://listserv.linguistlist.org/cgi-bin/mailman/listinfo/lingtyp</a><o:p></o:p></p>
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