16.654, Review: General Linguistics/English: Burridge (2004)

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Subject: 16.654, Review: General Linguistics/English: Burridge (2004)

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1)
Date: 03-Mar-2005
From: Robert Mailhammer < Robert.Mailhammer at web.de >
Subject: Blooming English 

	
-------------------------Message 1 ---------------------------------- 
Date: Sat, 05 Mar 2005 15:34:22
From: Robert Mailhammer < Robert.Mailhammer at web.de >
Subject: Blooming English 
 

AUTHOR: Burridge, Kate
TITLE: Blooming English
SUBTITLE: Observations on the roots, cultivation and hybrids of the 
English language
PUBLISHER: Cambridge University Press
YEAR: 2004
Announced at http://linguistlist.org/issues/15/15-1883.html


Robert Mailhammer, University of Munich

KEY TO TYPOGRAPHICAL SYMBOLS USED

th: voiceless interdental fricative
^ next to vowel grapheme denotes phonetic length
AuE: Australian English
G: German
ModE: Modern English
OE: Old English
ScE: Scottish English
All examples from languages and sounds appear in underscores thus: _..._. 

OVERVIEW

As the first version of "Blooming English" - published in 2002 - was 
available almost exclusively in Australia, Cambridge University Press has 
now produced a brand-new version for the Northern Hemisphere. The basis 
for the book are almost 200 radio pieces for the Australian Broadcasting 
Corporation's programme "Soundbank", in which callers from all walks of 
life can share their thoughts and feelings about language. One observation 
Kate Burridge has made from these calls is that many people care about 
language and that they derive a "tremendous enjoyment" (p. 1) from it. 
Hence, one goal of the book is to contribute towards "bridging the 
apparent gap between linguists and the wider community" (p. 4). The theme 
uniting the different sections of "Blooming English" is the image of the 
English language as a fertile garden exploring language change from 
several perspectives.

SUMMARY

"Blooming English" is divided into 15 sections each of which features a 
more general linguistic topic which is then illustrated in smaller sub-
sections using examples from historical and contemporary English. Each 
section is preceded by a quotation as well as a short introduction using 
the garden image providing an illustrating parallel.

The first section is entitled "The complexity of language", and it is a 
basic introduction to language theory. Burridge (p. 7-9) broadly defines 
the unique characteristics of human language as an initiated, arbitrary 
and conventionalised means of communication based on sound sequences, in 
contrast to animal 'language' that usually lacks one of these defining 
properties. Moreover, this first part also introduces basic linguistic 
concepts, such as the morpheme, the notion of productivity or re-analysis. 
In order to illustrate e.g. changes in the productivity of word-formation 
elements, Burridge draws a parallel between word-formation and the world 
of fashion pointing out that e.g. certain types of suffixes are en vogue 
at certain times, then lose their privileged position, only to stage a 
come-back centuries later, like the Old English suffix _-do^m_ in 
_stardom_, _PCdom_ and the like. Another example of illustration for the 
non- specialist reader, Burridge presents the phenomenon of re- analysis 
producing such examples as _Gladly the cross-eyed bear_ instead of _Gladly 
the cross I'd bear_" (p. 19) alongside well-known cases from English word 
history like _nickname_ (< _ekename_) or _adder_ (< _nadder_). The 
penultimate part of this section is on secret languages, which despite the 
complex linguistic operations they are often based on, can be spoken 
fluently even by children, which serves to highlight the innate linguistic 
capacity of human beings. Finally, a brief history of collective terms 
reveals imaginative suggestions for groups of linguists of which _a 
paradigm of linguists_ is only one example.

Section two is headed "Language Change" and basically deals with sound 
change and morphological change. Burridge generally views sound change as 
being "reductive" (p. 27) spreading from more frequent to less frequent 
words, but notes that this line of development is not always followed 
mentioning the revived pronunciation of <h> from the 19th century onward, 
and well-known cases of anaptyxis, e.g. _thunder_ (compare G _Donner_) or 
_humble_ (compare _humility_), alongside more current cases such 
as /fillum/ for /film/ (_film_) . A particular Australian example 
illustrates the phenomenon of suppletion: _bought_ increasingly is used as 
the past tense of _bring_ (p. 37). As one trigger for language change is 
the need for functional renewal, Burridge (p. 33-35) posits the future 
renewal of negation in English arguing that the elements of negation in 
English have been practically reduced to next to nothing and presents 
potential constructions like _a bit_ in _it didn't hurt a bit_, similar to 
the development of _ne ... pas_ in French. Moreover, in Burridge's view 
structural changes in a society can provide additional motivation for 
language change. As an example, she relates the history of the English 
pronoun system and the loss of _thou_ to changes in the social structure, 
but also emphasises the functional aspect by mentioning the emergence of 
forms denoting pronouns in the 2nd person plural, e.g. the well-known 
AuE/ScE _youse_. Moreover, at least one reason why changes can take hold 
in a language, according to Burridge (p. 40- 42), is social accommodation 
towards an interlocutor or demarcation from them.

At the beginning of the third section - "Word Creation" - Burridge argues 
that, despite thousands of words having "quietly slipped away" (p. 45) - 
among them such useful ones like _gry_ 'dirt under the fingernails' or 
_apricate_ 'to bask in the sun' - many more are constantly being created 
every day through various processes. Compounding is the first operation 
examined in this section discussing familiar problems of compounds, such 
as spelling, e.g. _crowd diving_ vs. _headbanging_, the effect on 
pronunciation in the case of old compounds, e.g. _nostril_ (OE 
_nosthyrel_, literally 'nose-hole'), problematic plural formations, e.g. 
_attorneys general_ vs. _attorney generals_ and the semantic relationship 
between the compounded elements, e.g. _fruit juice_ vs. _fruit loops_. In 
particular, the role of excessive compounding in the language of 
advertising and politics is emphasised with examples like _value-for-money 
6 kg boxes_ or _reality augmentation_ (instead of _lie_). One of the "most 
under- appreciated word formation processes in English" (p. 47), according 
to Burridge, is reduplication, which has been a means of creating new 
words such as _hush-hush_, _brain drain_, _nitwit_ (_nit_ 'louse' + 
_wit_ 'intellect'), or many expressive words, e.g. _ho-ho_. Another 
interesting type or word formation is backformation for which again 
Australian English provides one of the many examples, the verb 
_bludge_ 'to scrounge' from the noun, _bludger_. Often taken for a 
comparatively recent phenomenon, Burridge argues that blending has been 
around for quite a while, although recently it has become especially 
productive: Consider _twirl_ (< _twist_ and _whirl_), _flush_ (< _flash_ 
and _gush_), and contemporary _chocolateria_, _workaholic_ and 
_Monicagate_. This section concludes with a short part on acronyms 
explaining their formation as well as the motivation behind them.

One of the longest and probably most interesting chapters of "Blooming 
English" is entitled "Meaning Shifts". The sometimes drastic change in 
meaning of lexical items is illustrated with a short passage from a 
linguistic workbook which can only be understood if earlier meanings of 
certain words are known. Although Burridge notes that semantic change can 
be fairly erratic, she points out some paths of change that have been 
common in the history of English or which are interesting because of their 
idiosyncrasy. One example examined is the change of 'clever' turning 
into 'crafty, skilful in deceit' as in _crafty_; sometimes words can even 
come back to their original meaning: e.g. _politician_, after some time 
with a positive connotation is moving back to its sinister 17th century 
original meaning denoting 'a crafty, cunning intriguer', according to 
Burridge (p. 61f). One way of semantic change is through metaphorical use 
of words, a field that is also discussed in "Blooming English" as an 
especially rich resource in language change. Starting from synaesthesia, 
Burridge points out several metaphors whose origin in the world of sport 
are hardly recognisable today, e.g. _thrill_ originally 'to pierce, to 
penetrate' from medieval jousting. Arguing that expressiveness and 
variation are powerful motivations for language change, Burridge shows 
that they are also reasons for words to fade and to subsequently 
disappear. However, sometimes it is the world that changes and words just 
adapt to it, as in _straw_ (made of plastic nowadays), and thus manage to 
stay in use.

The next section of "Blooming English" (Relics of Language change) is very 
short and draws attention to a well-known observation which is taken up 
later in the book, namely that "irregularities are the leftovers of past 
regularities" (p. 132), e.g. cases of umlaut and compounds in which one 
part is no longer transparent, e.g. _werewolf_ (<_wer_ 'man').

Entitled "The Nature of Exotics", section seven illustrates one central 
theme of the book and this is the integrative capacity of English. 
Burridge (p. 89) argues that the "hierarchical patterning" in the English 
vocabulary "reflects nicely the historical development of the language 
with respect to borrowings" which is illustrated by noting that the  more 
refined terms tend to come from French, Latin and Greek rather than Anglo-
Saxon, e.g. _rise_ : _mount_ : _ascend_.

Although most speakers have a clear notion of what "bad language" is, in 
her section on this topic Burridge calls attention to the fact that its 
definition is less clear than most speakers are aware of, and contends 
that it often has a social function, i.e. the location "within a social 
space" (p. 93), which is also a reason for its continuing existence. From 
tautology in e.g. _pre-booked tickets_, fillers like _sort of_, slips of 
the tongue that turned earlier _waps_ into _wasp_, the intrusive _r_, 
vowel reduction (playing a vital part in the rhythm of English) and 
irritating spelling to jargon, Burridge demonstrates that so-called 'bad 
language' has always provided stimuli for the change of English.

This point is taken up in the next section entitled "Colloquial Today, 
Standard English Tomorrow". Burridge provides numerous examples of today's 
standard vocabulary which started out as markedly colloquial/substandard 
or slang, such as _clever_, _nowadays_ or _to capture_. This path of 
development can also be taken by non-lexical features, such as stress 
patterns of polysyllabic words (_contro'versy_ vs. _'controversy_) or 
pronunciation (e.g. phenomena of deletion rendering pairs like _fence_ and 
_defence_ or _ticket_ and _etiquette_). Moreover, Burridge argues that the 
singular use of _they_ fills a gap in the pronominal system and exhibits 
the same grammatical incorrectness as singular _you_ from a diachronic 
point of view, and consequently should not be considered ungrammatical.

The question whether _deepfroze_ or _deepfreezed_ is the correct past 
tense of _deepfreeze_ introduces the topic of analogy. The solution to 
this question suggested in "Blooming English" is that compounds featuring 
an irregular component tend to be regularised as soon as the elements 
involved fuse together closely enough so that the connection to the 
original irregularity is lost. For example, the past tense of _babysit_ or 
_highlight_ are completely regular, whereas Burridge (p. 130) contends 
that in the case of _deepfreeze_ this process has not been completed, 
hence the past tense _deepfroze_. However, Burridge observes that, 
although cases of analogy usually involve productive patterns, such as the 
regular past ending _-ed_, in some instances, patterns that are no longer 
productive on a larger scale can nonetheless be extended, as demonstrated 
by _bring_ : _brung_, or AuE _skin_ : _skun_, or the historical example 
_fling_ : _flung_. The remainder of this chapter mainly involves plural 
formations which have also been subject to various forms of analogical 
change in similar ways as verbal tense formations, as evidenced by the 
extension of the _-s_- plural or the contrast between _dwarves_ vs. 
_wharfs_. However, also the backformations touched upon earlier 
in "Blooming English" are cases of analogy, as Burridge explains in the 
last part of this section.

Another feature of language is examined in the next section, called "sound 
symbolism", in which Burridge argues, that, despite the original 
arbitrariness of words as speech signs, conventionalisation can result in 
the close association of a word with its meaning. In a subsequent process 
speakers transfer this meaning onto similar sounding words creating 
phonaestemic groups. The consequence, according to Burridge, is the 
feeling that certain sounds carry a certain meaning. In particular, 
interjections that are usually seen to be of onomatopoetic origin in fact 
can turn into other parts of speech, such as verbs in "They ummed and 
ahhed" (p. 143).

In addition, cases of contamination are explained as the change of a 
word's pronunciation as the result of its association with other words, 
e.g. _female_ from earlier _femelle_ under the influence of _male_, or the 
mix-up of two words due to their similarity in pronunciation as in 
_prodigy_ (originally _protégé_) or _mitigate_ (< _miligate_). Burridge 
(p. 151)argues that cases of "sound symbolism" can also be attempts to 
bring back transparency to words that have become obscure similar to folk- 
etymological creations like _veggieburger_ from a re- segmentation of 
_hamburger_.

In the next section ("What is correct English?") Burridge takes this 
thought one step further. As "language is not a precise notation like 
logic" (p. 160), every speech sign is in need of an interpretation. 
Consequently, language is always changing and any attempt to establish a 
certain kind of standard is in fact an attempt to stop this natural change 
from happening.  Burridge contends that it is detrimental to the kind of 
creativity in language that has given us great examples of artistic 
language use. Although conversation is impossible without some kind of 
conventionalised standard, Burridge draws attention to the fact that 
communication depends on the interpretative goodwill of the people 
involved. This is all the more true, since every set of grammatical 
rules "has fuzzy edges" (p. 163), i.e. the nature of language as a system 
necessitates the interpretation by language users, which is the reason 
behind disagreements, language creativity and, of course, language change.

One result from the considerations in the previous section is Burrdige's 
scepticism towards normative language regulation as she understands and 
accepts language change as perfectly normal and desirable. Nonetheless, 
the chapter entitled "Dictionaries, Style Guides and Grammars" begins by 
drawing attention to words that have disappeared from the lexicon despite 
their apparent usefulness, such as _symposiast_ 'one of a drinking party', 
_eubrotic_ 'good to eat', or _pinguedinize_ 'to make fat_. Even so, 
Burridge argues, there is no need for distress as the English lexicon is 
in quite a healthy state, "with well over one million words, and gaining 
new ones all the time" (p. 166). Sometimes, however, words are created 
and/or kept alive either due to a mistake either by a dictionary editor 
(the infamous _dord_ is mentioned), by scientists inventing new terms 
(e.g. _dismiss_, _transmit_) or nostalgists. Word rescuers in particular 
are confronted with another common fallacy of historical linguistics, 
Burridge argues: This is the idea that there is a 'true' meaning attached 
to each word which ought to be preserved. However, wondering what exactly 
this 'true' meaning is, Burridge (p. 170) returns to the topic addressed 
above saying that words' designations are not fixed and therefore 
constantly "sprout" new meanings.

This section is followed by a short chapter on personal names arguing that 
there are phonological preferences for male and female names expressing 
characteristic connotations that are also linked to the social 
significance of names. From the viewpoint of word- formation, personal 
names can also spawn other parts of speech, such as _to boycott_ or _to 
bowdlerize_, whereas nicknames can be used to express affection, 
particularly in Australian English.

The two last chapters deal with various forms of circumlocution, such as 
euphemisms, taboos and dysphemisms, e.g. offensive language. This 
communication strategy fulfils important social functions of solidarity, 
demarcation, or politeness, according to Burridge (p.201, 207). 
Diachronically, the semantic development of euphemisms and dysphemisms is 
seen to be interrelated by Burridge: Dysphemisms are largely based on the 
prevalent social norms, i.e. e.g. religious swear-words have largely 
disappeared, and they are subject to semantic bleaching due to the loss of 
expressive quality. Euphemisms or semantically positive words, on the 
other hand, tend to attract the negative connotations connected to 
the 'dirty' words they replace. Burridge (p. 213) re-formulates an 
economic law to sum up the path of this particular semantic change: "Bad 
connotations drive out good". This is demonstrated with cases in which 
words which are replaced  because they are phonetically or semantically 
associated with taboo expressions: Burridge (p. 212ff) adduces for example 
the tendency to avoid _cock_ 'rooster' or the replacement of _undertaker_ 
by _funeral director_. Once perfectly acceptable in polite conversation 
due to the lack of any taboo connection, the meaning of words like 
_orgasm_, _ejaculation_ and _erection_ has certainly narrowed down to the 
often tabooed semantic field of sexuality.

That euphemisms and positive circumlocutions are highly popular in the 
language of advertising and politics is shown in the last sections 
of "Blooming English". The world of food is a rich source with examples 
from _Welsh rabbit_ ("neither Welsh nor [...] rabbit", p. 220) to _Golden 
Fried Bermuda Onion Rings_. However, especially the jargon of political 
correctness has spawned a diverse variety of expressions referring to the 
elderly, of which _the chronologically gifted_ or _the experientially 
enhanced_ are especially innovative examples. However, Burridge (p. 228ff) 
argues that, ultimately, euphemisms can be used offensively causing their 
subsequent replacement, which is especially apparent from the chain of 
substitution involving _Member of the African Diaspora_ replacing _Afro-
American_ which replaced _black_, a term to avoid earlier _coloured_. The 
last part of "Blooming English" points out the most recent euphemisms 
military language has come up with, such as _collateral damage_, _surgical 
strikes_ and _incomplete success_, before ending with a short bibliography 
and a subject index.

DISCUSSION

In discussing of "Blooming English" it has to be borne in mind that this 
book is not primarily intended for the linguistic specialist. 
Consequently, in several cases simplifications are necessary and sometimes 
this can result in minor inaccuracies. For example, not always can 
irregularities be seen as "the leftovers of past regularities" (p. 132), 
which is evident from phenomena of suppletion. Moreover, the notion 
that "negation is ripe for renewal"(p. 34) because _not_ is "reduced to _-
n't_" (p. 34) does not take into account that the English negative 
operators are in fact _not_, _don't_, _won't_ etc., which cannot be 
generally regarded as reduced. Sometimes Burridge's observations on 
current tendencies cannot be generalised for all varieties of English, as 
e.g. the negative connotation of _politician_ may not be as strong in the 
rest of the English speaking world as it may be in Australia.

However, taking into account the designated audience of "Blooming 
English", these cases do not have to be over- emphasised, as they mostly 
are generalising simplifications.

There are just a few linguistic comments to be made: Burridge (p. 38ff), 
discussing the disappearance of _thou_, posits that a similar process 
leading to the loss of the "polite 'you' pronoun" (p. 40) is taking place 
in German. This is rather doubtful, as the position of G _Sie_ cannot be 
viewed as endangered.

In addition, I would like to draw attention to the fact that dialectal 
Yorkshire English, particularly in the city of Sheffield, still has a 
fully operational system of historical _thou_/_thee_ (/di:/ : /da:/) vs. 
_you_. Another point is the influence of Celtic languages on English. 
Contrary to the standard opinion quoted in "Blooming English", I would 
like to point out several recent studies arguing for a more substantial 
influence on English, e.g. a number of  articles in Filppula et al. 2002 
or Vennemann 1999a, 2004.

One minor addition corroborating Burridge's remark on the past tense of 
_bring_ in Australian English is my impression that the past tense of 
_buy_ also seems to have changed to _brought_ which is a perfect 
morphological cross-over.

EVALUATION

Despite the points raised in the discussion, "Blooming English" is a well-
researched and neatly edited introduction into the world of linguistics 
for non- specialists. This is in particular due to Kate Burridge's 
extraordinary talent for explaining rather complicated linguistic topics 
in a way that is accessible to non- linguists, which is greatly 
facilitated by her wonderful enthusiasm. However, what makes this book 
interesting also to linguists is that it features many curious word 
histories which probably not every specialist would be familiar with. From 
this point of view, "Blooming English" is a rich resource for historical 
English linguistics. Moreover, its casual style makes "Blooming English" 
excellent reading, showing that the world of linguistics is truly an 
interesting garden to wander around marvelling at its diversity. In this 
sense "Blooming English" certainly achieves its goal to narrow the 
gap "between linguists and the wider community" set in the introduction 
(p.4).  It therefore is highly recommendable to language enthusiasts, no 
matter whether professional or amateur.

REFERENCES

Filppula, M., Klemola, J. & H. Pitkänen (eds.), (2002), The Celtic roots 
of English, Studies in Languages 37, Joensuu.

Vennemann, Th., (1999) "On the rise of 'Celtic' syntax in Middle English", 
in: P. J. Lucas & A. M. Lucas (eds.), Middle English from Tongue to Text, 
Selected Papers from the Third International Conference on Middle English: 
Language and Text, held at Dublin, Ireland, 1-4 July 1999, Berne, 204-234.

Vennemann, Th., (2004), "Die Entstehung des Englischen, in: P. Schrijver & 
P.-A. Mumm (eds.), Sprachtod und Sprachgeburt, Bremen, 21-56. 

ABOUT THE REVIEWER

Robert Mailhammer has just completed his Ph.D. in Language Theory and 
Applied Linguistics at the University of Munich with a dissertation on the 
morphological and etymological situation of the Germanic strong verbs.





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