25.5114, Review: Translation: Pym (2014)

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LINGUIST List: Vol-25-5114. Mon Dec 15 2014. ISSN: 1069 - 4875.

Subject: 25.5114, Review: Translation: Pym (2014)

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Date: Mon, 15 Dec 2014 16:24:07
From: Diana Gorman Jamrozik [dgorman at colum.edu]
Subject: Exploring Translation Theories

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Book announced at http://linguistlist.org/issues/25/25-637.html

AUTHOR: Anthony  Pym
TITLE: Exploring Translation Theories
SUBTITLE: 2nd Edition
PUBLISHER: Routledge (Taylor and Francis)
YEAR: 2014

REVIEWER: Diana Gorman Jamrozik, Columbia College Chicago

Review's Editor: Helen Aristar-Dry

SUMMARY

“Exploring translation theories, Second edition” by Anthony Pym is a thought
provoking book on prevailing paradigms of Western translation theories. Each
chapter is clearly laid out with an opening summary, a bulleted list of the
chapter’s key points, a section in which key terms are defined if necessary,
and a segment that offers supporting and opposing arguments about the
chapter’s theories. Additionally, each chapter contains a closing summary and
a list of suggested activities that relate to the chapter’s paradigm, making
it an ideal addition to an advanced course on translation.

In the first chapter, “What is translation theory?”, Pym discusses the
development of translation theories. Should a translator be confronted with a
problematic text, the translator must formulate various possible translations
and then choose the one that best fits the situation. What solutions are
possible? How does the translator judge what is the best solution? The answers
to these questions are informed by a theory of translation. Similarly themed
perspectives on translation are presented together as “paradigms”.  Pym
emphasizes that while the book is arranged somewhat chronologically, more
recent theories do not necessarily supersede older ones. The author concludes
this chapter by chastising translation education programs for often separating
theoretical study from hands on practice; rather he is in favor of theoretical
formulations and discussions springing from practice (1.5).

Chapters 2 and 3 both deal with theories of equivalence, albeit from different
perspectives. Pym notes that the equivalence movement of translation arose in
response to the ideas of structural linguistics, which believed that language
reflects worldview, and therefore an equivalent translation between two
languages and world-views is not a realistic end (2.2). Chapter 2, “Natural
equivalence”, examines the view that equal values of expressions between
languages can and do occur, and therefore a start text (ST) and a target text
(TT) can be equivalent. The ST can be translated into the TT and back again
into the ST language without losing either the form or the function of the ST.
Pym cites various theorists who have determined levels of equivalence, and
offers a useful chart adapted from the work of Muñoz Martín (1988) comparing
“translation solution types” by the theorists Vinay and Darbelnet, Ayora, and
Malone (2.3). Among the arguments against natural equivalence listed is that
“new” information (e.g. technological terms) will not have naturally occurring
equal structures in all languages (2.7).  Several of Pym’s suggested
activities reinforce this notion on a practical level. The author notes that
equivalence theories have fallen out of favor in many circles, though in
Chapter 7 he argues that they are still quite relevant today because of 
localization. 

Natural equivalence is contrasted with “Directional equivalence” in Chapter 3.
Whereas natural equivalence theories purport bi-directional equivalence
between languages, the directional equivalence paradigm contends that
translating a ST into a TT is a one way street. These theories claim that a
back translation from that TT into the ST language would not create a text
that is the same as the original ST (3.3). He states that in these theories,
“naturalness is certainly an illusion” (p. 30). The theories of Kade (3.2) and
Gutt (3.6) are given relatively lengthy discussions in this chapter.
Additionally, scholars whose views fall under this paradigm, such as
Schleirmacher, Nida, and Levy, often offer just two dichotomies of equivalence
from which a translator can choose (3.4). This dyadic view is listed as a
criticism of directional equivalence in the “Frequently had arguments”
section, and some of the suggested projects ask students to work through and
compare translations based on the theorists’ views. 

The theories presented in the fourth chapter, “Purposes”, shift their
perspective from focusing on the purpose of the start text to that of the
target text. The central idea of this paradigm is that translations are done
to achieve a specific purpose. Therefore one text could be translated in
different ways depending on the intended function of the text in the target
culture. While equivalence might be achieved in special circumstances, it is
not the goal. These theories have been labeled “functionalist”, however Pym
suggests that translation theories under the descriptive paradigm in Chapter 5
could be categorized as functionalist as well (p. 48). The author provides an
historical overview of theorists who work under the “purposes” paradigm,
including Reiss and Vermeer and the “Skopos” theory (4.2), Holz-Mänttäri’s
work based on “action theory” ( 4.3), and Gouadec’s concept of “job
specifications” (4.8). Most of the theorists under this paradigm argue that
the translator should be given instructions regarding the purpose of the
translation to guide the translation process. Several of the “Frequently had
arguments” for this paradigm relate to the theories’ emphasis on the target
culture’s purpose rather than the original reason for the ST.  Additionally,
other theorists take issue with the decision making power of the translator
and clients in this paradigm. The suggested activities walk students through
various activities to show how one text could be translated differently
depending on the purpose of the translation.

In Chapter 5, “Descriptions”, the theories take a different view of
equivalence, in which equivalence is not a distinctive feature, but rather is
found in “all translations” (p. 63). The theories under this paradigm were
based on scientific inquiry, which set out to objectively describe features of
translations and what translators actually do, versus proposing what
translators should do when translating. Pym’s website,
http://usuaris.tinet.cat/apym/publications/ETT/index.html, has an expanded
version of this chapter which details the history of the paradigm’s
development beginning with the Russian formalists in late 19th and early 20th
centuries. This history culminates with Toury’s (1995) work, “Descriptive
translation studies”, which is based on literary translation. This theory has
a TT focus, and sees the TT as an artifact of the target culture; this claim
is noted to be a source of contention among translation theorists of other
paradigms (5.4, 5.9). Differences in STs and TTs are referred to as shifts,
and can be analyzed by either a bottom-up or a top-down approach (5.2). In
this chapter, Pym references the work of Holmes, Even-Zohar, and Chesterman,
among others. These theories seem to be more research based than the theories
in other paradigms. Research on translation done by descriptive theorists
shows patterns (often called “norms” (5.3) or “universals” (5.6)) that
translations tend to follow. While Pym argues that, “these theories were out
of touch with the growing number of training institutions” (p. 63), the study
of these patterns can be highly beneficial to translation students, with the
understanding that norms are culturally based. The activities section requires
students to delve into some interesting literary translation issues. 

The title of Chapter 6, “Uncertainty”, describes two different categories of
translation theories – those that claim there is uncertainty over translation
accuracy because one text can have multiple viewpoints and therefore multiple
translations, and those that claim there is uncertainty in communication in
general because the meanings of all words and texts are subjective. As an
illustration, Quine’s (1958) classic hypothetical example of a linguist
attempting to discern whether the word “gavangai” means simply “rabbit” or if
it has a different or more nuanced meaning is given (6.2.4). The works of
numerous philosophers (including Plato, Locke, and Heidegger) are briefly
mentioned, and while these thinkers are not discussing translation itself, Pym
makes connections between their theories and translation theory. Because the
concept of uncertainty questions meaning, and therefore the translation
process as a whole, the author provides ways that translators can work around
uncertainties, including applying the ideas of hermeneutics (6.4.3) and
non-linear logic (6.4.6). This chapter also discusses deconstruction, or the
pulling apart of language in order to decipher meaning, and its application to
the translation process, particularly by Arrojo (1977) (6.5). The “Frequently
had arguments” section mentions that the theories in this chapter may not seem
applicable to working translators, and I admit that the philosophies
presented, while making for an interesting discussion in a translation class,
are not necessarily practical. In fact, they may make students question the
meaning of everything, and therefore stymie the translation process. However,
the activities section offers a few practical activities (ones that easily
could be applied to the other paradigms as well), and in keeping with the
philosophical nature of the chapter, contains mostly questions for critical
application and discussion.

Chapter 7, “Localization”, deals with the translation of a text into multiple
languages, with the purpose of marketing a product to a local area or adapting
a product’s operating language for local use.  Rather than a direct ST to TT
process, localization adds a third step.  A ST is converted to an
internationalized text, and that version is then translated into multiple TT
languages (7.3). Types of texts subject to localization are software,
websites, or mass market books intended for global audiences. This process of
“globalization” of a text happens even before a translator is involved, and
the translation process is but a small part of the entire product development.
Equivalence between the function of the ST and TT comes into play again, as
the end users of a website or software must be able to interact with the
product in the same way as those in the original ST language (7.5). A
translator may only see extracted segments of the internationalized text to
translate, rather than an entire ST (7.6). Pym notes that because translation
through localization is not bi-directional, and sometimes results in a partial
translation of texts, there are ethical issues to be considered in terms of
equal accessibility to information (7.8). Very few theorists (of translation
or any other discipline) are mentioned in this chapter other than Pym (2004)
himself. The suggested activities offer an entertaining view of translation
via exploring international websites. 

The final chapter, “Cultural translation”, takes a broad view of the term
translation. In this paradigm, the idea of translation transcends actual
texts; rather, it implies the intersection of cultures. Pym discusses Bhabha’s
(1994) ideas on cultural translation and the idea of a hybridity that lies
between cultures (8.2). The theories under this paradigm tend to focus more on
a translator’s ability to bridge cultures than on text translation itself. As
with Chapter 6, few actual translation theorists are mentioned, notably
Jakobson (8.3.2), Evens-Zohar (8.3.3), and Spivak’s (2007) work that connects
psychoanalysis with translation (8.6). Other theories mentioned come from the
fields of social anthropology and ethnography, which Pym then applies to
translation. One critique in the “Frequently had arguments” section is that
cultural translation is outside the realm of translation theory.  However,
this paradigm may be of more use to interpreters, who mediate communication
between people of different cultures in real time. The immediacy of live
interaction makes cultural differences transparent, and these differences must
be negotiated through cultural translation. The activities for this chapter
tend to require more cultural and ethnographic reflection than practical
translation work.

EVALUATION

As an advanced course book, “Exploring translation theories” offers an
interesting perspective on equivalence that translation students need to
consider for their practical work. It is far too advanced to be an
introductory book for an undergraduate course, as its cursory overview of
translation paradigms assumes prior knowledge of the translation theories and
theorists presented. However, the “Suggested projects and activities” sections
at the end of each chapter are a welcome addition to any translation
classroom. The activities are fun and informative, as they will challenge
students to think through the different paradigms on a practical level. Pym is
correct in his suggestion that the activities be completed at the beginning of
class and then used as a springboard for discussion about the various
paradigms. Students will benefit from the practical application, and from that
application will be able to construct their own view of the translation
theories.

As a working interpreter, I found the few mentions of interpreting theorists
(such as Seleskovich, Breslin, and Pöchhacker) to be welcome gems of
information. As Pym (2011) himself has argued that interpreting is
translation, I would have liked more connections between the theories from
these two highly related fields. In fact, Pöchhacker’s (2004) “Introducing
interpreting studies” has a chapter entitled “Paradigms”, so a comparison of
these theories would be interesting. However, as “Exploring translation
theories” is focused on translation theory only, this is a minor point.

Overall, I highly recommend Anthony Pym’s “Exploring translation theories,
Second edition” for advanced students, and encourage all translation teachers
to explore the “Suggested projects and activities” sections for use in their
classrooms. 

REFERENCES

Bhabha, Homi K. 1994. The location of culture. London and New York: Routledge.

Gouadec, Daniel. 2007. Translation as a profession. Amsterdam: John Benjamins
Publishing.

Holz-Mänttäri, Justa. 1984. Translatorisches handeln: Theorie und methode.
Helsinki: Suomalainen tiedeakatemia.

Muñoz Martín, Ricardo. 2000. Translation strategies: somewhere over the
rainbow. In Beeby, Allison, Ensinger, Doris, and Presas, Marisa, (eds.),
Investigating translation. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. p. 129-138.)

Pöchhacker, Franz. 2004. Introducing interpreting studies. London and New
York: Routledge.

Pym, Anthony. 2004. The moving text: localization, translation, and
distribution. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing.

Pym, Anthony. 2011. Interpreting is translation. Lecture at the Monterey
Institute of International Studies. Accessible at:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u7vDJx3a_po&list=PL835F930889F12D2A.

Pym, Anthony.  2014.  Exploring translation theories website. 
http://usuaris.tinet.cat/apym/publications/ETT/index.html.  

Quine, Willard Van Orman. 1960. Word and object. Cambridge: MIT press.

Reiss, Katharina, and Hans J. Vermeer. 2014. Towards a general theory of
translational action: Skopos theory explained. London and New York: Routledge.

Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. 2007. Translation as culture. In Paul St-Pierre
and Prafulla C. Kar (eds.), In translation – Reflections, refractions,
transformations. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing.

Toury, Gideon. 1995. Descriptive Translation Studies. Amsterdam: John
Benjamins Publishing.


ABOUT THE REVIEWER

Diana Gorman Jamrozik is an Associate Professor of ASL-English Interpretation
at Columbia College Chicago, where she teaches upper level undergraduate
translation and interpretation courses. A nationally certified American Sign
Language (ASL) interpreter, she holds an MA (1998) in Interpretation from
Gallaudet University, and an MA (2013) in Linguistics from Northeastern
Illinois University. Diana’s research interests include translation processes,
turn-taking in ASL, and fingerspelled word recognition.








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