25.7, Review: Applied Linguistics; Sociolinguistics: Jones & Uribe-Jongbloed (eds.) (2013)

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Date: Mon, 06 Jan 2014 22:37:11
From: Lida Cope [copel at ecu.edu]
Subject: Social Media and Minority Languages

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Book announced at http://linguistlist.org/issues/24/24-961.html

EDITOR: Elin Haf  Gruffydd Jones
EDITOR: Enrique  Uribe-Jongbloed
TITLE: Social Media and Minority Languages
SUBTITLE: Convergence and the Creative Industries
SERIES TITLE: Multilingual Matters
PUBLISHER: Multilingual Matters
YEAR: 2013

REVIEWER: Lida Cope, East Carolina University

SUMMARY

This edited volume represents the work of 34 authors brought together through
the Mercator Network, created in 1988 to support applied work focused on the
condition and prospects of less commonly used minority languages in Europe.
The chapters deal with Basque, Catalonian, Gaelic, Irish, Kashubian,
Luxembourgish, Māori (New Zealand), and Welsh. The approach promoted by the
Network calls for studies that are engaged, bridging, grounded,
multidisciplinary, comparative, and networked.

The volume is organized as follows:  “Preface”; “Introduction”; Part 1,
“Theoretical Debates on Convergence and Minority Languages”; Part 2, “Web 2.0,
Social Networking Sites and Minority Languages”; Part 3, “Media Convergence
and Creative Industries”; and “Concluding Remarks.”

The Preface explains the book’s focus and organization, and briefly describes
each chapter.  The editors note that all the authors self-identify with the
community they have researched and wish to contribute to their own and other
minoritised languages’ retention and growth. An extensive endnote explains the
establishment and mission of the Mercator Network.

“Introduction: Ethnic/Linguistic Minority Media – What their History Reveals,
How Scholars have Studied them and What We might Ask Next” (Donald R. Browne
and Enrique Uribe-Jongbloed) offers a history of Minority Language Media
(MLM), an overview and major contributions of MLM scholarship since the 1980s,
and the authors’ perspective on understudied areas in the field of MLM. They
note that the ‘movement of convergence’ typical for the mainstream media
beginning in the 1990s had little effect on the area of MLM. Then, examining
key factors that have shaped the sector, they demonstrate the prevalence of
grassroots movements over top-down support from national governments and
mainstream media. And while MLM production in cooperation with mainstream
media makes economic sense, there is always a concern about adhering to the
goals of MLM programming measured against profitability driven by mainstream
audiences. The authors suggest several understudied areas in need of
attention, such as the place of dialects in MLM, collaboration with schools,
and MLM’s role in the changing conceptions of a linguistic community. They
call for more comparative cross-national research on MLM services and
emphasize developing culturally sensitive research methods.  Convergence of
our internet-driven media culture brings about both opportunities and
challenges for MLM intertwined with all other media sources. We have yet to
fully understand “how minority languages – or languages in general for that
matter – affect and are affected by the media through which they find
expression” (26).

Chapter 1, “Minority Language Media Studies and Communication for Social
Change: Dialogue between Europe and Latin America” (Enrique Uribe-Jongbloed)
discusses the concepts of hybridization and convergence, or “appropriating
different media to provide new avenues of participation which complement,
rather than replace, the role of specific outlets” (35). The author suggests
that research on MLM will benefit from a combination of concepts of MLM and
Communication for Social Change (CfSC) in Latin America, the approach that
embraces “simultaneously the idea of hybridity and convergence, in that it
promotes participation and negotiation of cultural conceptualizations in the
use of media” (37).  He notes that research in MLM needs to attend to media in
specific community contexts, and investigate the needs and desires of MLM
audiences. Such research should yield a better understanding of contextualized
best practices for each medium, which, in turn, should aid in the study of the
elusive cause-effect relationship between media use and language maintenance
(Cormack 2007 & this volume).

Chapter 2, “Towards Ethnolinguistic Identity Gratifications” (Lásló Vincze and
Tom Moring), reports on a study using the framework of Social Identity
Gratification Theory to investigate engagement of Finnish  and Swedish native
speakers (6% of the population) in Finland with MLM. Out of the variables
studied, ethnolinguistic identity emerged as one important motivational factor
in using particular media. Finnish speakers diverged very little from Finnish,
while Swedish speakers displayed higher divergence from Swedish, suggesting
that the minority media content did not meet the needs of the ML audience.
Swedish appeared to have the strongest standing in newspapers. Among other
variables, ‘local vitality’ appeared a strong predictor in the use of media
only by Swedish speakers, indicating that the immediate sociolinguistic
context is more influential in the minority audience’s relationship to the
particular media types.  Social Identity Gratification Theory is proposed as a
useful framework for the study of bilingual media use by bilingual
populations.
 
Chapter 3, “Minority Language Media, Convergence Culture and the Indices of
Linguistic Vitality” (Elin Haf Gruffydd Jones), examines the viability of
existing indices of linguistic vitality, focusing on how those relevant to MLM
should be adapted “in the age of convergence culture” (61). Jones explains
that MLM, in fact, play a much larger role in ML contexts than previously
acknowledged, citing the Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale devised by
Fishman (1991) as a framework attributing very little influence to media in
language revitalization and maintenance. Jones emphasizes that the
overwhelming presence of social media in day-to-day lives of community members
as both consumers and creators of media content necessitates a different view,
one which incorporates MLM as an important indicator of linguistic vitality.
Jones argues for “a substantial overview of the present indices and concepts
from which they were derived” if we aim higher than recording and documenting
“the demise of linguistic diversity” (70-71).

Part 2 begins with “Investigating the Differential Use of Welsh in Young
Speakers’ Social Networks: A Comparison of Communication in Face-to-Face
Settings, in Electronic Texts and on Social Networking Sites” (Daniel
Cunliffe, Delyth Morris and Cynog Prys), a study focused on language use by
young Welsh speakers engaged with various modalities within their social
networks online. It examines qualitative data collected from eight focus
groups as part of a larger research project that surveyed 300 Welsh-medium
secondary school students in southeast and northeast Wales. The authors
suggest that both the home and community language play a role in the amount of
Welsh used on social networking sites, consistent with previous research
noting that “social networks tend to replicate real-world social networks
rather than create new ones” (85). Facebook use in particular showed that
first-language Welsh speakers would use Welsh in individual messaging but
often switch to more inclusive English in status updates, most likely to
include Facebook friends not knowing Welsh.  It is suggested that especially
Facebook, where Welsh language is present to a higher degree, “could play an
important role in maintaining Welsh language” (85).

Melanie Wagner’s “Luxembourgish on Facebook: Language Ideologies and Writing
Strategies” reports on another project involving Facebook, focused on the use
of Luxembourgish, the national language in Luxemburg, alongside German and
French, the two “administrative and legal languages” (88). Written
Luxembourgish is of relatively recent origin and its teaching has been
“unstructured and irregular” in schools; as a result, many speakers feel
insecure about writing it. Its increased written use is attributed to “the
development of the new media” (89), here evidenced by its use on Facebook.
Discourse analysis of the posts suggests that users have positive attitudes
toward the language and perceive it as part of their ethnolinguistic identity.
Language ideologies are further detected through the discourse of ‘us’ vs.
‘them’ apparent in various metalinguistic comments. Overall, Facebook is seen
as a useful platform for talking about all things Luxembourgish in
Luxembourgish.

Chapter 6, “Audience Design and Communication Accommodation Theory: Use of
Twitter by Welsh-English Biliterates” (Ian Johnson), uses the frameworks of
Bell’s Audience Design (1984, 1997) and Giles’ (e.g. 2009) communication
accommodation theory to explain an analysis of 500 tweets collected from 25
Welsh-English biliterate users of Twitter. Results indicate the use of both
languages; mixing is rare and appears to fulfill symbolic rather than
informative functions. Bilingual users used more Welsh than English; however,
consistent with the notions of convergence and divergence in accommodation
theory, having a number of non-Welsh followers (the ‘eavesdropping’ audience)
resulted in switching to English.  Johnson’s research suggests a more
pronounced difference between spoken and written uses of Welsh than shown in
the 2001 census. The opportunities to read Welsh both offline and online seem
insufficient and may be affecting the users’ overall literacy skills.

In Chapter 7, “Kashubian and Modern Media: The Influence of New Technologies
on Endangered Languages,” Nicole Dołowy-Rybińska argues that apart from
replicating offline social networks (cf. Chapter 1), the internet affords
creating “a new type of ‘local communities’” (123) where a minority language
is used as a preferred medium of communication or at least a symbol of ethnic
belonging. She explains that the language of Kashubians in the region of
Poland bordering Germany, already weak in the 1940s, declined even further as
a result of repression in the communist years, when its use was banned in
schools and all public life. Today a government-protected minority language,
Kashubian has been reintroduced, albeit as a foreign language, to the schools
in the region. Bringing it back to education required codification and
standardization, resulting in a divide between the oldest and the younger
generations, who do not understand each other. In fact, young speakers blend
Kashubian and Polish and tend to write using Kashubian letters absent from
Polish, thus creating new, distinctive identities in their online
communication. For the young, the online space is naturally conducive to the
use of ‘their’ Kashubian, providing adaptable, non-hierarchical, and scalable
infrastructure with opportunities for “online activists to arise” (128).

Chapter 8 presents “The Welsh Language on YouTube: Initial Observations”
(Daniel Cunliffe and Rhodri ap Dyfrig). Having considered the difficulties in
sampling YouTube, the authors settle on 878 non-duplicate key-word search
results (i.e. any Welsh variant of the term “the Welsh language”), grouping
these videos based on how they signal content delivered in Welsh.  Then,
having acknowledged the inevitable sampling bias, they subject 553 videos
whose content targeted Welsh speakers to qualitative and quantitative
analyses. Even though related videos are nothing like networked individuals
(cf. Cheng et al. 2008), any linguistic metadata in “tags, titles and
descriptions” (139) can define networks connected through a common language.
The social network analysis of five randomly selected accounts shows that the
sampled social networks are bilingual in both content and audience. Still, the
audiovisual content on YouTube deemphasizes language use, and even where Welsh
language videos can be identified, their viewership at present does not
compare to the large audiences generated by Welsh-language channels like S4C.
The authors conclude that YouTube can become an online space for promoting
Welsh; however, “without further input from broadcasters and coordinated
efforts to promote videos” (143), this potential remains uncertain.

In “Learning Communities Mediated through Technology: Pedagogic Opportunities
for Minority Languages,” Niall Mac Uidhilin explores language learning online.
He draws in particular on Vygotskyan sociocultural theory with its ZPD and
emphasis on collaborative learning, furthered in the framework of Communities
of Practice (Lave and Wenger 1991); and explains how the field of New Literacy
Studies viewing literacy as a situated social practice and Gee’s (2008)
Discourses, likened to Fishman’s (2001) language functions, relate to the
development of critical literacy skills in ML communities. Having touched on
literacy practices in blogs, social networking sites and Wikis, the author
argues that social media can help once again connect school language efforts
with Fishman’s (2001) home-family-community functions, using as an example his
own use of Web 2.0 technologies “to create a learning space that connects
learners’ primary Discourse at home with their secondary Discourses at school
and with the wider community” (155). The importance of authenticity in such
efforts is emphasized: the learners must feel engaged as owners and authors of
content prepared for real-life audiences.

In chapter 10, “Enhancing Linguistic Diversity through Collaborative
Translation: TraduXio, an Open Source Platform for Multilingual Workflow
Management in Media”, Philippe Lacour, Any Freitas, Aurélien Bénel, Franck
Eyraud and Diana Zambon discuss the growth of information and communication
technologies in the past 20 years, particularly in relation to how we think of
and execute effective language translation. They focus on TraduXio, one such
innovative tool for collaborative multilingual translation through the web,
and demonstrate how it empowers users, helping them “share, collaborate, and
circulate different forms of cultural expressions” (171).

In “Experiences of Audience Interaction by BBC Network Radio Producers:
Implications for Endangered Language Media,” Philippa Law utilizes her own
experience as a network radio producer to explain the perspective of producers
-- their common concerns, expectations, and motivations -- as they prepare
participatory media content on a daily basis. She offers several case studies
illustrating benefits and challenges of incorporating audience participation;
offers a summary list of the producers’ motivations and concerns; and explains
what these mean for endangered language media. She recommends that communities
carefully select partnering broadcasters, because “not all radio producers are
alike in their approach to interactivity” (182); articulate all their
linguistic needs; and consider the media outlet’s policy on correctness,
fluency of speech on air, and the use of dialects/mixed languages.

Chapter 12 (Part 3), “Towards a Template for a Linguistic Policy for Minority
Language Broadcasters” (Eithne O’Connell), argues that Irish broadcasters
would greatly benefit from having “guidelines relating to all aspects of
minority language use/output in their workplace, rather than just thinking of
programme content” (190). O’Connell identifies and discusses several areas
tied to this overall linguistic practice in the workplace: corporate mission,
in-house and external communication, broadcasting language, translation, and
commercial dealings. The changing landscape of Irish broadcasting is used to
show what is and what could be done under each of these areas. The author
concludes that ML maintenance would benefit from reflecting on realities in ML
broadcasting and designing a comprehensive language policy.

In Chapter 13, “Legislating the Language of Cinema: Developments in
Catalonia,” J˙lia Cordonet and David Forniès focus on legal proposals
regarding Catalan (today used by more than 7.7 million speakers) in the cinema
industry, the problem being that “[f]ilms in Catalan cinemas are almost
exclusively exhibited in Spanish” (202). Discussing the state and implications
of Catalan cinema legislation, the authors review current norms and
regulations for the use of Catalan in cinemas in Catalonia and in other
Catalan-speaking territories inside and outside Spain. Having outlined the
main articles in the new law pertaining to the cinema industry, they argue
that there exists a legal basis to act on what the reality suggests about
supply and demand in order to “substantially increase the screenings in
Catalan” (210).

Chapter 14, “The Contribution of BBC ALBA to Gaelic: A Social and Economic
Review” (Douglas Chalmers, Mike Danson, Alison Lang and Lindsay Milligan),
tackles the question of whether media can “foster the acquisition and usage of
minoritised language” (213). The case in question is the BBC ALBA, the first
“dedicated Gaelic-medium television channel in history” (212), which is well
poised to attract more viewers who speak or understand Gaelic in Scotland. The
authors discuss the channel’s policy framework, economic impact, and social
contributions: appealing to the audience’s cultural identity and affirming the
continued relevance and presence of Gaelic in today’s Scotland; and promoting
the study and use of the language. They note that while beneficial overall,
the channel cannot help increase the use of Gaelic without translating this
purpose into certain types of programming (e.g., “modeling the behaviour of
using Gaelic in widening domains”; 220). They conclude that this nonetheless
strong medium with a high-quality product is an important source of employment
of young Gaelic-speaking professionals (the “Gaelic Creative Class”; 216), and
that it can aid in reversing language shift especially if  the new interactive
options afforded by Web 2.0 are explored.

Chapter 15, “Multilingual Practice of the EITB Group and its TV Provision for
Teenagers” (Amaia Pavón and Aitor Zubergoitia), offers a portrait of the
Basque public broadcasting group EITB. Focusing on its “Basque language
provision for teenagers” (224), the authors consider methodology for studying
teenage users’ habits on the net as they explore how many Basque media outlets
are used and why. To test their methodology’s validity, they conducted a pilot
study using interviews with directors of programming at ETB, 207 secondary
student surveys, and data from a focus group of ten students following up on
questionnaire responses to further examine what appeals to them and why: Would
the experts’ and student consumers’ perceptions match? The conclusions support
Cormack’s view expressed in the volume’s closing chapter: “we should not be
investigating the audiovisual content on the internet as an isolated
phenomenon” (235) -- we are dealing with users of multimedia platforms.
Further research is needed to give a more accurate picture of the young users’
media consumption patterns in the Basque Country.

Chapter 16, “Tell a Song/Waiata Mai/Abair Amhrán: Singing Out” (Ruth Lysaght),
compares two television programs produced in Māori (by Māori Television
Service, New Zealand) and in Irish (by Teilifís na Gaeilge, Irish language
television, Ireland). Both are poetry and traditional song performances,
offering “a way of passing on the craft and the words to the next generation”
(244). The programs are not moderated, which allows viewers to create their
own interpretations of presented art forms. In the Māori program, language use
is facilitated by showing the song lyrics on the screen. In the Irish program,
“the air of the songs and the constantly moving visuals breathe life into what
for some might otherwise be an inaccessible cultural artefact” (244); the
literal meaning of the words would give only a partial story, as the oral
tradition requires the audience’s creative participation and interpretation.
In lieu of formal learning, both programs are “taking on the role of seanachaí
(storyteller) or tohunga (expert)” (245).

Chapter 17, “Languages: Obstacles and Brand Values in the Age of Media
Convergence” (Bea Narbaiza, Josu Amezaga, Edorta Arana and Patxi Azpillaga),
characterizes the age of media convergence by “the multiplication and
transnationalization of the provision of media content; … decrease in the
presence of minority languages in the media in quantitative terms” (246); and
the overall participatory nature blurring the roles of producers,
distributors, and receivers. The current state of these media is discussed
using data from interviews with representatives of management in eight
European media companies, and types of “television in minority languages in
Europe” (251) are categorized based on the communities’ access to broadcasts
in their own language or to such television via satellite.  The interviews
yielded more similarities than differences among the companies involved. For
example, the dilemma of drawing wide audiences vs. using the minority language
appears to be solved by specialization of content (e.g. children’s
programming). Importantly, the authors observe a shift from revitalizing and
preserving the language to the production of high-quality audiovisual content
with a broad appeal, where language is more of “a descriptor … an exclusive
adjective” (253), branding each media company as a content provider in the
community’s language.

In “Concluding Remarks: Towards an Understanding of Media Impact on Minority
Language Use,” Mike Cormack observes that the existing MLM research, including
his own, has yet to address “how development and use of the media by minority
language communities actually helps language maintenance” (256). He presents
the major challenges of “new media” and language planning. Sketching a
framework for future research in the desired direction, he asks what research
“for the digital future” (261) is needed and what kind of understanding of
minority languages in media it should yield. The emerging framework considers
as variables: (1) “varieties of language effect” (e.g. changes in language use
and/or attitudes toward the language as a result of media use); (2) “types of
media use” (from simply reading to full participation); (3) “the context of
media consumption” (from solitary to fully participatory); and (4) measuring
interaction of linguistic identity with “the media text” to understand “its
role in media-language interaction” (262-263). The relevance of
sociolinguistics to MLM studies is highlighted, and Cormack brings in relevant
papers from the volume as examples of steps in the right direction. There is a
need for more ethnographic research on language use vis-à-vis the use of media
in specific sociolinguistic contexts. Lastly, clarity about how media assist
in community language maintenance will continue to directly impact public
funding vital to MLM.

EVALUATION

This informative volume constitutes an important contribution to the
fast-evolving field of MLM Studies. It continues the discussion of the role
that social media can play in maintaining and promoting endangered minority
languages (cf. Riggins 1992, Cormack 2007). Several contributions emphasize
that media influence can no longer be seen as inconsequential; rather, as an
integral part of home, school, and community life, this influence must be
factored into language maintenance and reversing language shift.

While the languages discussed are largely confined to Europe (with the
exception of Māori and a theoretical discussion of frameworks involving Latin
America), the thematic scope is quite broad, from theoretical debates on the
subject (Part 1), through individual case studies (Part 2), to language policy
issues (Part 3). The partition of the volume provides for sufficient
coherence; the relationship among contributions is enhanced by frequent
cross-referencing. All papers seem to reflect quite well the “engagé approach”
(xi) explained as one of the principle approaches of the Mercator Network to
this type of applied research.

The book will be very useful to applied linguists and sociolinguists, students
and scholars alike, interested in the role of today’s multilingual,
multi-platform media in minority and Indigenous language communities; to media
specialists in academia and in the media industry; and to anyone interested in
examining the role of digital age media in maintaining language diversity.

Cormack’s concluding chapter emphasizes that researchers in this field must be
aware of developments in sociolinguistics. This thread, addressed to various
degrees, is certainly present in this volume. For example, it will be
fascinating to see how the conceptions of speech/linguistic community as a
“networked community” will continue to evolve; how social networks theory will
be expanded, or what new realities will be reflected in the future indices of
linguistic vitality. As a complementary field, current research in political
science (e.g. Saunders 2011) can further inform discussions about minority
nationalism and the role of the internet in the production of
national/linguistic/ethnolinguistic identities. Similarly, MLM studies can
benefit from engaged conversations with applied linguists (and vice versa),
particularly those invested in language documentation, maintenance, and
revitalization (e.g. Penfield and Tucker 2012). In all, the volume achieves
its goals. Further research should continue to explore the outstanding concern
reiterated in Cormack’s concluding remarks: specific ways in which MLM can
help strengthen minority languages.

REFERENCES

Bell, Allan. 1997 (1984). Language style and audience design. In Nikolas
Coupland and Adam Jaworski (eds.), Sociolinguistics: A Reader and Coursebook
(pp. 240-50). New York: St. Martin’s Press.

Cormack, Mike (ed.). 2007. Minority language media: Concepts, critiques and
case studies. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

Fishman, Joshua. 1991. Reversing language shift: Theoretical and empirical
foundations of assistance to threatened languages. Clevedon: Multilingual
Matters.

Fishman, Joshua. 2001. From theory to practice (and vice versa): Review,
reconsideration, and reiteration. In Joshua Fishman (ed.), Can threatened
languages be saved? Reversing language shift revisited: A 21st century
perspective (pp. 451-482). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

Gee, James Paul. 2008. Social linguistics and literacies: Ideology in
discourses (3rd ed.). London: Routledge.

Giles, Howard. 2009. The process of communication accommodation. In Nikolas
Coupland and Adam Jaworski (eds.), The new reader in sociolinguistics (pp.
276-286). Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan.

Lave, Jean and Wenger, Etienne. 1991. Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral
participation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Penfield, Susan and Tucker, Benjamin V. 2012. From documenting to revitalizing
an endangered language: Where do applied linguists fit? In Cope, Lida (ed.),
Applied linguists needed: Cross-disciplinary teamwork in endangered language
contexts (pp. 25-39). Routledge.

Riggins, Stephen Harold (ed.). 1992. Ethnic minority media: An international
perspective. Newbury Park, London & New Delhi: Sage Publications.

Saunders, Robert A. 2011. Ethnopolitics in cyberspace: The internet, minority
nationalism, and the web of identity. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books.


ABOUT THE REVIEWER

Lida Cope is an associate professor of applied linguistics in the Department
of English at East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina. Most of
her published research focuses on the language, culture and identity of ethnic
Czechs and Czech Moravians in Texas. She directs the development of the Texas
Czech Legacy Project (University of Texas at Austin), which will offer an
open-access web-based archive documenting this population's unique dialect and
cultural heritage.








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