25.2347, Review: Applied Linguistics; Language Acquisition: Davies (2013)

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LINGUIST List: Vol-25-2347. Thu May 29 2014. ISSN: 1069 - 4875.

Subject: 25.2347, Review: Applied Linguistics; Language Acquisition: Davies (2013)

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Date: Thu, 29 May 2014 08:41:01
From: Laura Dubcovsky [ledubcovsky at ucdavis.edu]
Subject: Native Speakers and Native Users

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Book announced at http://linguistlist.org/issues/24/24-4224.html

AUTHOR: Alan  Davies
TITLE: Native Speakers and Native Users
SUBTITLE: Loss and Gain
PUBLISHER: Cambridge University Press
YEAR: 2013

REVIEWER: Laura Dubcovsky, University of California, Davis

SUMMARY
 
The book invites the reader to consider the two terms of the title, “Native
Speakers” and “Native Users,” from new lenses. In his preface, Davies lays out
his thesis: changing the reductionist definition of native speakers as a
universal condition given at birth, and instead exploring the capacity of
non-native speakers, or in Davies’ terms, native users. What the author argues
is for a continuum between native speakers and native users, where “membership
can change, it can be added to[...],” and, in both cases, “membership requires
work” (p. viii). The book is divided in nine chapters: the introduction
(Chapter 1) presents a general overview of the main arguments and lays out
examples proposed in each chapter to illustrate Davies’ thesis. Chapters 2 to
8 develop these examples through empirical studies drawing from diverse
settings, distant in time and place, to illuminate the author’s proposal of an
existing continuum between native speakers and native users. The conclusion
(Chapter 9) summarizes Davies’ characterization of native speakers and native
users, connecting in an explicit manner the theoretical foundation and
practical cases developed throughout the book.

In Chapter 1, Davies uses the comparison between Second Language Acquisition
Research (hereafter, SLAR) and Applied Linguistics (hereafter, AL) to
reintroduce psycholinguistic and cognitive notions in the native speaker
debate, revise the circularity regarding the traditional definition of being a
“native speaker,” and question its status of being the norm. After this
analysis, Davies concludes that the nature of these terms is more “a political
than a linguistic appraisal” (p. 2); therefore, he proposes to investigate
“whether the native speaker and the native user are separated from one another
by a fundamental difference or by a continuum” (p. 5). The introductory
chapter includes an overview of the following chapters, which present varied
examples that contrast the theoretical construct of an ideal and isomorphic
native speaker with real native speakers who coexist with native users in
multilingual and complex societies.

Chapter 2 presents issues of language and identity of négritude, as defined by
Anglophone and Francophone traditions in Africa. Davies uses this scenario to
review the related string of concepts concerning nativeness: ownership,
origin, and identity. He relates this conceptual chain to the well-known
Linguistic Relativity Principle (Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis), especially in its
strong form, because it explores not only how language influences thought, but
also how the two share isomorphic qualities. The chapter illustrates the sense
of language/identity loss through poems and novels that reveal different
perceptions, attitudes, and cultural displacement, highlighting the tension
between spoken and written language during the post-colonial era, during which
it has increased. After his brief historical trajectory, Davies concludes that
his coined term, ‘native user,’ “is almost oxymoronic.” (page #) As he
explains, “If you are a speaker, then it is taken for granted that you use the
language. If you are a user, then you are not a native” (p. 11).

In Chapter 3, Davies considers what it means to be a native user in the
context of postcolonial English in two particular settings: English as a
Lingua Franca (ELF) and English as used in India. In the first part of the
chapter, the author notices that the simplified version of the Standard
English used in the ELF context is definitely different from English as a
second or as a foreign language. He also departs from the traditional
opposition between native and non-native speakers, since, in ELF settings,
communication is established among non-native speakers. Davies defines a
native user as “a second-language speaker [who is] therefore not a native
speaker of his/her second language. Furthermore s/he is a proficient user of
that second language” (pp. 27-28).  In the second part of this chapter, the
author discusses the use of English in postcolonial India. Usually, scholars
associate the “English in India” label with written and more formal language
(i.e., “high variety”) and the “Indian English” (IndE) label with spoken and
informal language (i.e., “low variety”). Davies highlights that while written
language enjoys conformity to a standard variety that represents the
“idealized linguistic norm,” spoken varieties still differ considerably,
remaining as “a complex, elusive, and problematic entity” (Schneider, 2007:
p.172, quoted on p. 34).

Chapter 4 pinpoints the different goals, philosophies and settings of Second
Language Acquisition (SLA) and Second Language learning (SLL) that guide the
contrasting characterizations of a native speaker. Notions of innate
knowledge, grammatical judgments, and maturation have pervaded the SLA field,
supporting the idealized native speaker construct. In contrast, SLL includes
social theory and the interdisciplinary work of critical discourse analysis,
systemic functional linguistics, and genre theory (among other areas). Rooted
in AL, these scholars elaborate a more social construct of native speakers
that presents both variability and homogeneity in members of a community of
users, while also considering that the Standard Language is typically accessed
through education. AL’s major success resides in the attention given to strong
language teacher preparation and the development of effective teaching
methods; above all, the focus is on a teaching of the Standard Language that
enables access for native speakers and second language learners. In the
author’s words, “the goal or model of the educated second-language learner is
the Standard Language” (p. 51).

In Chapter 5, Davies considers native speakers and native users within the
framework of language norms, highlighting that the stability of language is
more striking than its variability (Sedlatschek, 2009). He recognizes the
central model and the unequal distribution of the norm, as well as the
negative consequences that imposing Standard English may bring to those with
limited or no schooling, and to those who speak different first languages or
non-standard dialects. However, the author embraces the notion that Standard
Language is a social and psychological entity, only possible through a two-way
process of language and education (Crystal, 1997, quoted on p. 58). As Davies
explains, Standard English is acquired through education, and education itself
is dependent of the Standard English medium. Therefore, native speakers and
native users gain language proficiency through schooling and constant
practice. The last part of the chapter addresses main linguistic arguments,
such as the effect of Standard English in different English contexts (e.g.,
areas of England, Australia and the USA),different accents that are distant
from British pronunciation, descriptive and prescriptive roles of the Standard
Language, political/apolitical considerations of monolingualism as the norm,
the spread of English around the world, and the effects of globalization,
internationalization and transnationalization on the use of Standard English.

Chapter 6 offers three studies to empirically support the main argument in
favor of Standard English as a model for both native speakers and native
users. First, the author frames the studies in the context of International
English (IE) and World Englishes (WEs) in order to explain the polarizing
attitudes toward the spread of English. Then, he explains the purpose of the
studies, which aim to prove “whether the model or norm that native users work
to in their English performance is the same or different from that of
comparable educated native speakers of English” (p. 73). Finally, he
summarizes his research. In the first study, Davies and his collaborators
analyzed the norm used in English-proficiency tests in Malaysia, Singapore,
China, and India, and obtained mixed results, as both international and local
criteria were accepted. In the second study, the scholars revisited issues of
bias in the English used in international proficiency tests. The essays
collected were not sufficient to provide evidence, although bias could not be
dismissed. In the third study, Davies and his colleagues analyzed the
judgments of both educated native speakers and non-native speakers regarding
the performance of native users of English, without obtaining conclusive
results about the question of whose norms and whose judgments are to be
imposed in these exams.

Chapters 7 and 8 present two seemingly distant linguistic events to illustrate
the main arguments developed in this book: the worship of Quakers and examples
of textual hoaxes, respectively.  Davies treats the Quaker meetings as speech
events, following a language learning model that includes: (1) conversation,
(2) formal settings, and (3) continuing states of incipient talk. After
analyzing fifteen meetings, the author brings to the fore a comparison between
the members’ behavior and the nature of the religious and the linguistic
community. Among the similarities, the researcher points out that the Quaker
worship is open to all, (most) members are amateurs rather than professionals,
and, like in other forms of discourse, religious meetings constitute a
discourse that must be learned. Above all, they have a norm or standard
language, given by silence, which is the unmarked form of the silence/speaking
tension prevalent within the Quaker community.

In Chapter 8, Davies pays special attention to advanced levels of reading
proficiency. He uses four textual hoaxes to show that only through education
readers can reach higher levels of comprehension, interpretation, and critical
thinking. As the author claims, reading skills need to be taught, regardless
of native speaker or the native user status, to uncover deception and to
become critical readers in a second language. The last chapter (9), is a brief
summary of previous chapters, which enables Davies to highlight his main
arguments about identity “loss and gains” (Chapter 2), the variability of ELF
among users and within particular settings (Chapter 3), and the importance of
teaching Standard English norms and rules (Chapters 4 and 5), and of
presenting evidence through empirical studies (Chapters 6-7-8).  Both
theoretical foundation and practical examples support the author’s thesis of a
continuum of native speakers and users, which reconciles the separation
between cognitive and sociolinguistic views derived from SLAR and AL,
respectively.

EVALUATION

“Native speakers and native users. Loss and gain” brings a fresh look to key
topics in SLA and SLL. Davies takes the reader through different scenarios,
from Africa to India, from religious to lay settings, and from past to current
events, to show common struggles that both native speakers and native users
have when trying to become members of a linguistic community. Moreover, long
studied concepts, such as Standard Language, norms, proficiency tests and
bias, the idealized status of the native speaker, and language change and
stability are revisited in light of current uses of English in globalized and
post-colonial societies (e.g., ELF, IE and WE).  Davies’ deep knowledge of
language, literature and cultures is evident through the wealth of empirical
data and literary concepts illustrated in each chapter. Last, but not least,
the author has the ability to reconcile cognitive and sociolinguistic
perspectives, which enable him to strengthen his own viewpoint.

The book is carefully structured through solid arguments, which are richly
illustrated by literate examples or empirical studies. The author wisely
connects different chapters, using the last paragraph of each of them to
introduce the following. This strategy provides a purposeful thread of ideas
that makes his thesis flow throughout the entire book. However, less
cohesiveness is achieved in Chapter 3, where Davies attempts to combine quite
different scenarios of the use of English, and in Chapters 7 and 8, which have
seemingly distant examples. The author needed to devote longer paragraphs to
the historical, cultural, and linguistic contexts rather than to explicit
connections with his major points.

Overall, “Native speakers and native users. Loss and gain” will be of
particular interest to students and scholars working on SLA and SLL. The
reader will find engaging examples and rich references to literature that will
revive his/her interest in exploring the nature and scope of native and
non-native speakers and in establishing stronger relationships between
theoretical and applied linguistics.

REFERENCES

Crystal, D. (1997). “English as a global language”: Cambridge University
Press.

Schneider, E. W. (2007). “Postcolonial English: Varieties around the world”:
Cambridge University Press.

Sedlatschek, A. (2009). “Contemporary Indian English: Variation and change”.
Amsterdam: John Benjamin.


ABOUT THE REVIEWER

Laura Dubcovsky is a lecturer and supervisor in the teacher education program
from UC Davis. She has a Master’s in Education and a PhD in Spanish
linguistics with special emphasis on second language acquisition from UCDavis.
Her areas of interest combine the fields of language and education. She is
dedicated to the preparation of bilingual Spanish/English teachers, and has
presented her pre-service course about Spanish across school disciplines in
different forums, meetings and workshops, for professionals and parents
interested in bilingual education and in English as a second language. She is
dedicated to improving the academic Spanish and the effectiveness in teaching
second language learners of future bilingual teachers. Her article “Functions
of the verb decir ('to say') in the incipient academic Spanish writing of
bilingual children,” published in 2008 in Functions of Language, 15(2),
257-280, analyzes the writing of bilingual school grade children, from a
Systemic Functional Language perspective.








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