26.528, Review: Applied Ling; Lang Acq; Neuroling; Psycholing: Gass, Mackey (2013)

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Subject: 26.528, Review: Applied Ling; Lang Acq; Neuroling; Psycholing: Gass, Mackey (2013)

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Date: Mon, 26 Jan 2015 14:17:59
From: Alexandra Galani [algalani at cc.uoi.gr]
Subject: The Routledge Handbook of Second Language Acquisition

 
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Book announced at http://linguistlist.org/issues/24/24-4341.html

EDITOR: Susan M. Gass
EDITOR: Alison  Mackey
TITLE: The Routledge Handbook of Second Language Acquisition
SERIES TITLE: Routledge Handbooks in Applied Linguistics
PUBLISHER: Routledge (Taylor and Francis)
YEAR: 2013

REVIEWER: Alexandra Galani, University of Ioannina

Review's Editor: Anthony Aristar

 SUMMARY 

The book is a collection of thirty-five chapters organised in seven parts, an
editors’ introduction, lists of illustrations (p. ix), abbreviations (pp.
x-xii), contributors (pp. xiii-xviii), a glossary (pp. 590-598) and an index
(pp. 599-609).  

“Introduction” by Susan M. Gass and Alison Mackey (pp. 1-4) 

In this short introductory chapter, the editors stress how complex second
language acquisition is. They suggest that best results will come out from a
multidisciplinary approach. They also explain how the book is organised and
what each section in each chapter is about. Each chapter follows the same
structure: introduction, historical information on the topic, theoretical
approaches and studies in the literature, data and common elicitation
measures, application of the topic in second language acquisition and finally
future directions. According to the editors, the handbook is addressed to
second language acquisition researchers, applied linguists, graduate students,
upper-level postgraduate students, practitioners and any other professionals
interested in second language acquisition.     

Part I: Language in context (pp. 5-87)

Chapter 1: “Interactionist approach” by Alison Mackey, Rebekha Abbuhl and
Susan M. Gass (pp. 7-23)

The authors first discuss how the interactionist approach has been developed
since the 1970s. The starting point was the types of discourse patterns in
native and learner conversations. Through the years, it was noticed that
comprehensible input, opportunities to produce output and specific features
hard to be acquired, all affect second language development. More recently,
research was focused on: whether interaction is equally important, if it
affects all forms of language acquisition (e.g. lexical, morphosyntactic), if
there are any cognitive mechanisms which affect second language learning,
whether factors -such as anxiety- affect second language learning and how
interactive feedback also influences second language learning. They also
discuss the different tests that can be used to test either learners’
production or perception. They bring examples from the literature to show
which tests work better for specific purposes (e.g. to test explicit or
implicit feedback). Finally, they highlight the areas of research which have
not received much attention in the literature (e.g. long-term delayed
post-tests, interdisciplinary research on interaction, the social
relationships between teachers and learners, etc.).  

Chapter 2: “The role of feedback” by Shawn Loewen (pp. 24-40) 

The role feedback plays in oral production is discussed in this chapter.
Loewen first explains that different types of feedback occur in second
language classroom contexts: recasts, elicitations, explicit correction and
update. He shows that feedback can be effective for second language learning
and discusses the characteristics of feedback which influence its
effectiveness (e.g. recasts and elicitation levels, timing and amount of
feedback). Moreover, he shows that contextual characteristics –such as
instructional and interlocutor variables- may also influence feedback
effectiveness. He draws the attention to different methodologies that can be
used to test the effectiveness and the role feedback plays in second language
learning (e.g. production tests, grammaticality judgements, developmental
stages, cognitive processes). Loewen shows that uptake, noticing and learning
are the three indicators of feedback effectiveness. Research on feedback can
be applied to second language classrooms. Attention, though, should be paid to
two areas: teachers should employ as much feedback and not all students share
the same views on its effectiveness. The amount of feedback as well as its
effectiveness in specific linguistic items in various languages are two
domains for future research. 

Chapter 3: “Variationist perspectives” by Robert Bayley and Elaine Tarone (pp.
41-56) 

Bayley and Tarone discuss the role social context play in second language
learning. Second language learners produce different styles depending on the
social context and the researcher’s identity. There are no standard categories
according to which learners can be classified into speech communities (e.g.
whether they first learn the informal style and then move on to the formal
one). The authors briefly present the methodologies used in the variationist
approach (e.g. sociolinguistic interviews, ethnographic observations,
longitudinal studies). They conclude that second language speakers’ social
networks play a role in second language acquisition and learners acquire
language at different rates depending on the social contexts. The findings of
the variationist approach can be used in teaching and assessment. They stress
that language proficiency does not only entail acquiring the grammatical
features in a language but also acquiring the use of these grammatical
features in different social contexts appropriately. In order to achieve this,
teachers should expose second language learners to videos, engage them in
chats in and out of the classroom and encourage them to visit native speaking
countries. Longitudinal studies on how social context and language learning
outside schools and academic establishments are achieved are areas for future
research. 

Chapter 4: “Sociocultural theory: a dialectal approach to L2 research” by
James P. Lantolf (pp. 57-72)

Lantolf discusses the sociocultural theory in second language. Despite the
fact that second language learners may use the language successfully, they do
not always succeed when they use it to complete cognitive tasks (e.g. lexical
organisation). It has also been found that L2 learning is highly influenced by
types of imitation; that is imitative suggestion and persistent imitation. In
the first case, learners imitate the original model whereas in the latter they
imitate the model by adapting new features. In sociocultural theory, the L2
private speech and social mediation are the most common elicitation measures.
He claims that theory and practice guide each other and consequently the
findings of sociocultural theory can be incorporated into L2 classrooms.
Finally, he suggests that scientific knowledge should be formulated in such a
way so that it is far from artificial and explicit conceptual knowledge should
be combined with communicative tasks to enhance L2 learning.   

Chapter 5: “Complexity theory” by Diane Larsen-Freeman (pp. 73-87) 

Larsen-Freeman explains that according to the complexity theory in second
language acquisition, learning is a complete system affected by various social
factors and most importantly by the interaction between the speakers. Positive
and negative evidence are present in speakers’ interacting environments. This
means that negative evidence does not necessarily need to be applied in
classrooms. Learners notice patterns, make generalisations, reach conclusions
as far as the social value of structures is concerned, adopt patterns they
notice and implement them. Language learning is achieved through implicit and
explicit instruction. Learning is affected by physical, social, cognitive and
cultural factors. So, language learning can be characterised as a complex and
dynamic system. In complexity theory, two models have been used to analyse the
data: the dynamic and the qualitative. Complexity theory can be applied to
classrooms, as they are dynamic and complex environments. Teachers should be
focused around learning, follow a curriculum-based approach and engage
students to physically authentic activities so that they apply the grammar
they learn in real social contexts. As for future research, one could
investigate the limitations of computer modelling, as they are not real-time
social situations.  

Part II: Linguistic perspectives (pp. 89-176)

Chapter 6: “Second language phonology” by Fred R. Eckman (pp. 91-105)
 
Eckman offers a comprehensive account of the linguistic theories around second
language phonology. He offers the historical background on the development of
L2 phonology –starting from the contrastive analysis hypothesis to
interlanguage- and the difficulties L2 learners have to acquire. In the first
case, the difficulties in acquisition were attributed to the phonological
differences between native language and target language. In the second case,
L2 learners develop a mental system which enables them to produce and
understand utterances in the target language similarly to L1. Different
analyses in the literature are presented in favour of each theory. Eckman
explains that data collection is based either on L2 learners’ production and
perception of L2 sounds or empirical testing in terms of the application of L2
phonology. The theoretical discussion points to the direction that L2
phonological production should not be just a matter of learning the production
of the target language.  

Chapter 7: “Linguistic approaches to second language morphosyntax” by Donna
Lardiere (pp. 106-126)

Lardiere discusses the morphosyntactic acquisition of L2s and more
specifically L2 acquisition within the principles of Universal Grammar and the
Principles and Parameters theory. She explains that different approaches to
explain the role L1 knowledge plays in acquiring L2 morphosyntactic features.
The most common data collection methods are: collection and transcription of
conversational and interview data, narrations, film retelling, truth-value
tests, sentence combining. Teaching could benefit as long as teachers receive
training around the findings of morphosyntactic comparative research. They can
then direct students’ attention to structures which they may struggle with. As
far as future research is concerned, it is suggested that attention should be
paid on the interfaces and not only strictly on syntax.  

Chapter 8: “L2 semantics” by Roumyana Slabakova (pp. 127-146) 

Slabakova discusses the acquisition of L2 semantics. She first offers some
historical remarks on lexical and cognitive semantics and suggests that the
semantic variation lies on the lexicon-syntax and syntax-semantics interface.
L2 learners face the difficulty of mapping meaning to the syntactic
structures. Moreover, the most common data collection methods are:
grammaticality judgement tasks, truth-value judgment tasks, interpretive
judgments and tasks which present learners a test sentence and spell out three
or more interpretations. Research has shown that lexical semantics cause
difficulties to L2 learners when their L1 lexical knowledge needs to be
restructured. Moreover, it has been found that when L2 learners acquire
inflectional morphology, semantic acquisition is not problematic. L2 classroom
teaching may improve as long as teachers put emphasis on practising grammar in
communicative-based activities. Learners need to be aware of the inflectional
properties that trigger syntactico-semantic structures. One of the interesting
future research areas are comparative child L1, child L2 and adult L2 studies
on the acquisition of semantic properties.      

Chapter 9: “Pragmatics in second language acquisition” by Kathleen
Bardovi-Harlig (pp. 147-162)

Bardovi-Harlig discusses the role environment plays in L2 acquisition (e.g.
host environments where the language learnt is spoken by the population or
foreign language context where learners learn languages not spoken by the
population). Instruction may also influence development in L2 pragmatics
acquisition but different teaching methodologies further affect it. The most
common data collection measures are spontaneous oral speech, production and
non-production tasks and role plays. Research on L2 pragmatics can improve
teaching activities, materials and assessment.   

Chapter 10: “Vocabulary” by Batia Laufer and I.S.P. Nation (pp. 163-176)

Laufer and Nation explain that L2 learners should be acquainted with frequent
and useful words, both easy and difficult ones. Teachers should make sure they
target learners’ lexical knowledge (knowledge of the spoken and written forms,
morphological and semantic knowledge, social constraints, etc.). Language
input and word-focused instruction -which involves communicative and
non-communicative tasks, tasks on production, comprehension and contextualised
tasks- play a crucial role in vocabulary development. Some of the key future
directions are studies on vocabulary learning tasks, vocabulary size and
growth and computer-aided vocabulary learning. 

Part III: Psycholinguistic and neurolinguistic perspectives (pp. 177-299)

Chapter 11: Second language processing by Norman Segalowitz and Pavel
Trofimovich (pp. 179-192) 

The authors discuss L2 language processing, the mechanisms and processes that
underlie language learning and use: morphological, phonological, syntactic,
lexico-semantic or even processing of different skills (reading, writing).
Learners’ L2 processing is characterised by three features: it is volitional,
social and variational. L2 learners are active agents, they produce speech
with specific communicative intentions and they use the linguistic resources
to communicate their intentional message. The role of the interlocutor is also
very important. Language processing is also social as the meanings
communicated are processed in such a way that they are appropriate to the
social context. Learners’ speech is also influenced by situations they engage
in. Methodologies -such as recall and recognition- are frequently used for
data collection purposes. Research on L2 processing shows that target
processing skills, activities which aim to exchange sociolinguistic
information and activities which engage students with their interlocutors
should be encouraged in class.  

Chapter 12: Frequency-based accounts on second language acquisition by Nick C.
Ellis (pp. 193-210) 

Ellis reports on studies which show that frequency plays a crucial role in L2.
L2 learners carry their L1 knowledge to construct or reconstruct. Four factors
determine learning: input frequency, form, function and the interaction
between them. Learners first observe patterns, they identify their linguistic
forms and meanings and they map them to one another. So, how frequent these
patterns are and the subsequent generalisations learners make are important.
Implicit teaching enhanced by communicative methods should be enhanced.  

Chapter 13: The logic of the Unified Model by Brian MacWhinney (pp. 211-227)

The author presents the principles of the Unified Competition Model
(MacWhinney, 2008) according to which L2 learners learn languages through
various processes: competition, cues, inputs to competition, entrenchment,
resonance, connection, misconnection, proceduralisation, chunking, positive
and negative transfer, parasitism and internalisation. Data is collected
through picture tasks, selected corpora and data from online L2 studies.
Research findings could further contribute to teaching strategies as the needs
of different groups vary (e.g. young learners benefit from rich input, whereas
adult learners require instruction which focuses on contextualised and
decontextualized components).  

Chapter 14: Processability theory by Manfred Pienemann and Jörg-U. Keβler (pp.
228-246) 

Processability theory modeled in LFG is discussed in this chapter. The basic
principle is that learners can only process L2 forms which can be handled by
the language processor at any stage of their development. The authors first
offer the historical background before moving on to the theoretical claims,
the principles and hypotheses. The theory is based on four psycholinguistic
principles: transfer of grammatical information, lexically driven grammar,
lexical mapping and the TOPIC hypothesis (L2 learners do not differentiate
between subject and other discourse functions). Conversational data collected
through interviews as well as data collected through elicitation tasks are
used. Processability theory can be used to diagnose language development and
enrich language teaching techniques.

Chapter 15: Attention and awareness in second language acquisition by Peter
Robinsion, Alison Mackey, Susan M. Gass and Richard Schmidt (pp. 247-267) 

The role attention and awareness play in L2 acquisition either at the
neurobiological or information processing level is discussed in this chapter.
Input and intake, implicit and explicit learning and knowledge, conscious
raising and input enhancement, apperception, the noticing hypothesis,
detection, noticing and working memory as well as selective attention and
frequency effects have been investigated in the literature. The authors
discuss the interface between implicit and explicit knowledge in addition to
the objects of attention. Research on attention and awareness can play a role
in instructional input enhancement, aptitude, working memory and the design of
language learning tasks.  

Chapter 16: Input processing by Bill VanPatten (pp. 268-281) 

VanPatten discusses those theories which investigate the role of input in L2
acquisition. Learners first make a connection between form and meaning or
function. They process content words which appear in the input whereas the
meaning of grammatical forms which is lexically encoded is not processed until
it is matched to its corresponding lexical forms. The first noun or pronoun
found in a sentence tends to be processed first but learners may also rely on
lexical semantics or event probabilities to interpret sentences. Offline and
online measures are commonly used. Input processing plays an important
pedagogical role. Once one knows what strategies learners use to interpret
sentences, interventions can be made to treat complex constructions.  

Chapter 17: The neurocognition of second language by Kara Morgan-Short and
Michael T. Ullman (pp. 282-299) 

Morgan-Short and Ullman discuss the theoretical claims about the neural and
cognitive basis of L2 acquisition: the declarative/procedural model (Ullman,
2004), Paradis’ model (Paradis, 2009), the competition model (Hernandez et al,
2005) and the convergence hypothesis (Abutalebi, 2008). The
electrophysiological technique of ERPs and the hemodynamic neuroimaging
approach of function fMRI are the most common brain-based methods used in
neurocognitive L2 research. According to some findings, it could be suggested
that adult L2 learners could benefit more from implicit construction.  

Part IV: Skill learning (pp. 301-377) 

Chapter 18: Development of second language reading skills: cross-linguistic
perspectives by Keiko Koda (pp. 303-318) 

Koda discusses the development of second language reading skills. It has been
claimed that L2 reading is affected by three factors: L1 reading competence,
L2 input and linguistic knowledge. Learners need to acquire two types of
reading skills: language specific (symbol to sound mapping) and non-language
specific (e.g. word segmentation). L2 reading development has been
investigated in correlation studies and group comparison studies.
Cross-linguistic relationships, factors which affect assimilation of L1 skills
and cross-linguistic variations have also been investigated in the literature.
Teachers should bear in mind that previously acquired reading skills play a
role on L2 reading and should incorporate diagnostic reading assessments in
order to accommodate individual students’ needs. The quantity and the quality
of reading input are also areas teachers should focus on to enhance L2
learners’ reading development.     

Chapter 19: The acquisition of second language writing by Charlene Polio (pp.
319-334) 

Polio discusses various approaches around the acquisition of L2 writing
(generative approach, emergentist/associative approach, processability theory,
functional approaches, sociocultural approach, interaction approach). The
findings on the role L1 plays in L2 learners’ writing development are not
conclusive: in some studies learners translated from the L1 whereas in others
they did not. Longitudinal L2 writing development has been investigated in the
form of case studies or studies focused on one linguistic feature. Moreover,
task variables such as task complexity, direct writing, translation and
planning time have been looked at in studies. Stimulated recall, think-aloud
protocols and key-stroke logging are some of the main techniques used.
Research on L2 writing development could be relevant to teaching, assessment,
writing, choosing the relevant medium and error correction.   

Chapter 20: Second language speech production by Lucy Pickering (pp. 335-348) 

Pickering presents theories and studies in the literature which aim to discuss
the difficulties L2 learners face in the production of L2 speech. It is
affected by age, language-specific factors (e.g. L1 and L2 differences and
similarities) as well as socio-affective ones (e.g. task variation,
motivation, extend of L1 and L2 use). Teachers should focus on oral practice,
be concerned with comprehensibility and promoting different learning
strategies.   

Chapter 21: Second language speech perception: a cross-disciplinary
perspective on challenges and accomplishments by Debra M. Hardison (pp.
349-363) 

Hardison offers a discussion on the issues which have been extensively
investigated in the literature as far as L2 speech production is concerned:
length of residence, L2 input, L1 and L2 use, modification of the adult
perceptual system through auditory training and auditory-visual input as well
as the relationships between perception and production. It has been shown that
teachers should provide feedback on categories which are more difficult to be
established and L2 speech perception could be benefited from diagrams of mouth
shapes which will help students practice not only sound perception but also
production. 

Chapter 22: Speaking and writing tasks and their effects on second language
performance by Folkert Kuiken and Ineke Vedder (pp. 364-377) 

The authors discuss the effect different speaking and writing tasks have on L2
performance. It has been found that various factors influence it: type and
complexity of the task, the conditions under which it was completed, its
nature and its mode (oral or written). Some tasks are better suited for oral
development while others for checking written progress. Consequently, teachers
should make use of the availability of tasks to achieve better results (e.g.
information gap tasks, argumentative writing tasks, dictogloss, etc.).  

Part V: Individual differences (pp. 379-521)

Chapter 23: Language aptitude by Peter Skehan (pp. 381-395) 

Skehan reports on studies on aptitude. Matching aptitude profile (analytic
versus memory orientated learners) to teaching methodologies leads to higher
achievement. Age as well as different instructional contexts are also
influential. It has also been found that working memory plays a crucial role
in L2 aptitude which is also relevant to instructed, rule-search, implicit and
incidental intervention conditions. The Modern Languages Aptitute Test
(Carroll and Sapon, 1957), Pimsleur’s language apptitute battery (Pimsleur,
1966), and the cognititve ability for novelty in acquisition of language
foreign have been widely used in the literature. Aptitude can be useful to L2
acquisition: course admission decisions should be also made on the basis of
aptitude information or teachers could see where learners might have
difficulties and choose the most appropriate teaching methodology. They could
also council learners on how long it will take them to reach the desired
levels of achievement.    

Chapter 24: Motivation by Ema Ushioda and Zoltan Dörnyei (pp. 396-409)

The authors discuss the importance motivation plays in L2 acquisition. They
first summarise the four main phases research on motivation focuses on: the
social-psychological, the cognitive-situated, the process-orientated and the
socio-dynamic. The attitude/motivation test battery (Gardner, 1985) has been
widely used in the literature. Motivation is directly related to classroom
teaching: if teachers engage students in setting goals and promote feelings of
success, provide feedback, personalise teacher behaviour and teacher-learner
relations, better results can be obtained. Additionally, teacher learning
processes can be supported by motivational strategies: creation of the basic
motivational conditions, generation of initial motivation, maintenance and
protection of motivation and encouragement of positive retrospective
self-evaluation.  

Chapter 25: Identity, agency and second language acquisition by Patricia A.
Duff (pp. 410-426) 

Duff presents studies which show that language use conveys social information
(language variety, educational background, etc.). Learners act as agents, are
not passive participants. They make deliberate linguistic choices (standard
variety or non-standard, formal or informal). Studies on identity have been
influenced by post-structuralism, critical theory, feminist theory and other
approaches. Case studies methods, ethnographic research, narrative inquiry,
interviews, personal narratives and conversation or discourse analysis are the
most common research methods. It is important for teachers to know the
learners’ backgrounds or any other aspect of their identities, as it will help
them accommodate their needs, choose the most appropriate projects and trigger
their interest.  

Chapter 26: Working memory and SLA by John N. Williams (pp. 427-441) 

Phonological short-term memory has been shown to play a role in vocabulary and
grammar learning. Evidence from studies on reasoning, category learning and
artificial grammar learning show that working memory is related to explicit
learning. Explicit instruction, task-based learning and intentional induction
could be used in classrooms to enhance development. 

Chapter 27: Age effects in second language learning by Robert DeKeyser (pp.
442-460) 

DeKeyser discusses the core issues around the role age effects play in L2
acquisition. It cannot be supported that research findings are conclusive.
Future work needs to be done on what linguistic features are harder to be
learnt at what age. Data need to be collected from a variety of source and
target languages. Generally speaking, age effects have been shown to influence
pronunciation, morphosyntactic acquisition and vocabulary development.   

Chapter 28: The role of educational level, literacy and orality in L2 learning
by Martha Bigelow and Jill Watson (pp. 461-475)

The authors discuss the role L1 educational level and literacy play in L2
acquisition. It has been shown that learners with higher level of literacy
performed better than participants with lower levels of literacy. Teachers
should make sure they use concrete objects and real-time world examples when
teaching non-literate adults. Academic content first needs to be made
comprehensible orally. Language and context learning should be taught
simultaneously. 

Chapter 29: Fossilisation – A classic concern of SLA research by ZhaoHong Han
(pp. 476-490) 

Han looks into fossilisation, that is the permanent local cessation of
development (Han and Odlin, 2006). This means that knowledge is deviant from
the target, is resistant to explicit instruction and feedback and is out of
the learners’ control. Discourse syntax and semantics are harder to be
acquired and so they are most likely to be fossilised. Naturalistic data in
longitudinal case studies is used. Teachers should bear in mind that
everything cannot be acquired but it may be learned. Consequently, they need
to focus on rules which can be easily explained to learners. Exposure to
naturalistic input in classroom is strongly encouraged.   

Chapter 30: Heritage language and L2 learning by Olga Kagan and Kathleen
Dillon (pp. 491-505) 

Heritage languages, the different terms used and the differences between
bilinguals, foreign and L2 speakers are discussed in this chapter. The most
common data collection methods are: analysis of written and oral errors,
written texts, story telling, surveys and questionnaires. Research on heritage
languages enables the development of new instruction approaches as well as the
design of a heritage language curriculum. Despite the fact that the majority
of the studies is done on immigrant communities in the U.S.A., similar
research programmes could be extended to other groups. 

Chapter 31: Advanced language proficiency by Heidi Byrnes (pp. 506-521) 

Various areas on advanced language proficiency have been studied in the
literature. For instance, is there a critical period, what are the constraints
on native-like L2 performance, what are the ultimate levels of fossilisation
in relation to learning capacity, how grammatical categories are attended in
L2. To achieve advanced language proficiency, instructional programmes should
include tasks which promote learning both language and content as well as
study abroad periods. 

Part VI: The setting of learning (pp. 523-569)

Chapter 32: Learning through immersion during study abroad by Sally Sieloff
Magnan and Barbara A. Lafford (pp. 525-540) 

Research findings have shown that L2 learners greatly benefit from long study
abroad periods, as they avoid contact with L1 peers, and develop not only
language skills but also broaden their attitudes and achieve personal growth.
Magman and Lafford summarise data and common elicitation methods (e.g.
language corpora and blogs, oral interviews, social network logs, etc.) and
present the variables which affect study abroad programmes (e.g. length of
stay, participants’ language learning background, living conditions, social
networks and language contact, etc.).   

Chapter 33: Classroom research by Jessica Williams (pp. 541-554) 

Williams discusses research on classroom learning contexts, what it has to
tell us about learning processes and in what ways instruction could become
more effective and efficient. Studies examine the role of the teacher, the
student-teacher interaction, student-student interaction what the patterns of
interaction are and how language use in class is connected to language use
outside the classroom. Common data collection methods include direct
observations, interaction analysis and introspective methods.  
 
Chapter 34: Language learning through technology by Trude Heift and Carol A.
Chapelle (pp. 555-569) 

The authors report on studies on the use of technology for language learning
and more specifically on the types of interactions through technology (e.g.
learners receiving computed-generated feedback). Research has also been
concerned with individual learner’s differences and assessment, as well as
learners’ autonomy. Interaction-based research, surveys, questionnaires and
retrospective interviews are common ways of data collection. 

Part VII: Conclusion: assessment of L2 knowledge (pp. 571-589) 

Chapter 34: Assessing learner knowledge by John M. Norris and Lourdes Ortega
(pp. 573-589)

Assessment of L2 learners’ knowledge aims at how learners acquire grammatical
representations and what factors contribute to development. Researchers are
concerned with what is assessed, how it is assessed and who is assessed.
Grammaticality judgment tasks, elicitation of oral/written discourse
production and naturalistic data are the main data collection methods. 

EVALUATION

The editors bring together papers covering a wide range of topics related to
second language acquisition. The most influential theories and studies in each
area are presented. Each chapter provides enough background knowledge and the
theoretical points are generally well-exemplified. Case studies are presented
in each case which further help the reader grasp a better understanding of the
theoretical frameworks and claims. Moreover, the importance of this volume
lies on the sections which bridge the gap between theory and its application
to second language classroom. Possible future research and directions are also
of great value.  

The chapters are well-organised and referenced, and there are good
cross-references, although repetition is inevitable in parts. All chapters
stress the complexity of second language acquisition, evaluate the merits and
the problems of theories, tests and studies in the second language literature
and acquaint readers with a variety of data collection methods.    

This book will be of great interest to researchers in SLA, language pedagogy
and advanced students in linguistics. Second language teachers will also
benefit, although the theoretical discussion may be somewhat advanced for
those lacking a solid linguistic background and consequently further reading
is essential. It can also be used as a reference book. It definitely presents
interesting ideas for future research. 

REFERENCES

Abutalebi, J. (2008). Neural aspects of second language representation and
language contro. Acta psychological, 128 (3), 466-478.   

Carroll, J. B. and S. M. Sapon. (1957). Modern languages aptitude test. New
York: Psychological Corporation. 

Han, Z.-H, and T. Odlin. (2006). Introduction. In Z.-H and T. Odlin (Eds.),
Studies of fossilisation in second language acquisition. Clevedon,
UK:Multilingual Matters. pp. 1-20.   

Hernandez, A., P. Li, and B. MacWhinney. (2005). The emergence of competing
modules in bilingualism. Trends in cognitive science, 9 (5), 220-225. 

MacWhinney, B. (2008). A unified model. In P. Robinson and N. Ellis (Eds.),
Handbook of cognitive linguistics and second language acquisition. Mahwah, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 

Paradis, M. (2009). Declarative and procedural determinants of second
languages. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. 

Pimsleur, P. (1966). Pimsleur language aptitude battery (PLAB). New York:
Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. 

Ullman, M.T. (2004). Contributions of memory circuits to language: the
declarative/procedural model. Cognition, 92(1-2), 231–270.


ABOUT THE REVIEWER

Alexandra Galani is a permanent member of the academic staff at the University
of Ioannina. Her main research interests are in morphology, its interfaces and
language acquisition.








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LINGUIST List: Vol-26-528	
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