26.2651, Review: Applied Linguistics: Ushioda (2013)

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Subject: 26.2651, Review: Applied Linguistics: Ushioda (2013)

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Date: Wed, 27 May 2015 15:10:09
From: Andrea Lypka [alypka at mail.usf.edu]
Subject: International Perspectives on Motivation

 
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EDITOR: Ema  Ushioda
TITLE: International Perspectives on Motivation
SUBTITLE: Language Learning and Professional Challenges
SERIES TITLE: International Perspectives in English Language Teaching
PUBLISHER: Palgrave Macmillan
YEAR: 2013

REVIEWER: Andrea E. Lypka, University of South Florida

Review's Editors: Malgorzata Cavar and Sara Couture

SUMMARY
 
Contemporary Second Language Acquisition (SLA) research has highlighted the
importance of language learner’s motivation and identity (Dörnyei, 2009; Lam,
2000; Lamb, 2007; 2012; 2013). However, few studies have explored the complex
and dynamic interaction between these concepts in various local and global
contexts. Due to globalization, English has become an international language
tied to socio-cultural, academic, economic, educational, technological, and/or
political interests. The volume “International Perspectives on Motivation”
edited by Ushioda presents research, literature reviews, and reflective
analyses by researcher-practitioners on motivational factors for English
language learning and teaching in diverse learning settings and geographic
regions. The topics covered include the issues of second language (L2)
motivation, cultural identity, intercultural learning, self-esteem,
self-authenticity, academic motivation, adaptation, learner autonomy, and
digital technologies. Each chapter was inspired by Dörnyei’s L2 Motivational
Self System, complexity theory (Dörnyei and Ushioda, 2009), person-in-context
relational view (Ushioda, 2009), self-determination (Deci and Ryan, 1985),
goal-orientation (Ames, 1992), identity theories (Norton, 2000), and the
concept of affinity spaces (Gee, 2005). 

While the synergy between socio-psychological factors, motivation and learner
development in L2 has been studied and theorized since the 1950’s (for
example, Gardner and Lambert, 1972), the capstone of contemporary research
inquiry on motivation and SLA is Dörnyei’s L2 Motivational Self System (2009).
In the context of self, Dörnyei’s L2 Motivational Self System captures the
dynamic interactions between individual learner differences and learning
environments. The three components of this theory are the ideal L2 self,
ought-to L2 self, and L2 learning experience (Dörnyei, 2009). Among the three
components, the ideal L2 self can be a powerful motivator in SLA because when
English language learners (ELLs) internalize learning ideals, they try to
reduce the dissonance between their ideal selves and their current states. The
ought-to self encapsulates societal norms and expectations for a particular
position or behavior, and it is connected prevalently to instrumental goals
(Dörnyei, 2009). The L2 learning experience is related to language learners’
attitudes toward formal and informal learning environment and curriculum.

Even though the concept of an L2 self-system is “still in its theoretical
infancy” (Ryan, 2009, p. 121), the scholars in this volume attempt to expand
on motivation theories by discussing pedagogical and theoretical implications
of motivation, identity, and English as a Foreign Language (EFL) and English
as a Second Language (ESL) teaching in various sociolinguistic contexts.
Findings of these studies suggest that language learning policies and global
English play a key role in learning English as an ESL/EFL. 

The 13 chapters included in this book conceptualize the relationship between
motivation and identity as fluid and dynamic. In the book, different learning
settings are explored, such as ESL or EFL, bilingual immersion education,
content-based language learning, academic learning in English, K-12, community
college, and university. Findings of these studies align with these
theoretical frameworks, calling for the examination of motivation, identity,
and language acquisition as both contextualized in English-speaking global
community as well as in the local education, language policies, and curricula.

In the opening chapter, Ushioda provides an overview of major trends in theory
and research on motivation and SLA. Ushioda calls for research that expands on
simplistic EFL/ESL and integrative/instrumental motivation binaries and
examines language learning motivation as embedded in the local sociocultural
and global English settings. The collection includes six sections: pedagogical
practices (Lamb and Budiyanto in chapter two and Taylor in chapter three),
preference for English-medium education (Kuchah in chapter four and Banegas in
chapter five), motivation toward integrated content and language (Malcolm in
chapter six and Woodrow in chapter seven), English-mediated popular culture
and technology (Henry in chapter eight and Stockwell in chapter nine), adult
learners’ ideal L2 self (Gao in chapter ten and Igoudin in chapter eleven),
and in-service teacher views on English language teaching research (Aboshiba
in chapter twelve). In chapter 13, Ushioda calls for the integration of
research in classroom practices to further examination of teacher skills with
well-defined methodology.

In various chapters, researcher-practitioners, including Lamb and Budiyanto
reflect on their research and teaching experiences in various language
learning environments, such as a state EFL school in rural Indonesia. With
regard to motivational patterns, in chapter two, the authors suggest that
teaching practices, such as providing opportunities for reflective writing,
motivating learners to communicate with a guest speaker, engaging learners in
conversations about controversial topics, translating learners’ prayers or
songs into English, encouraging students to bring their culture into the
classroom, stimulate them emotionally and cognitively, and enhance their
target language skills. According to Lamb and Budiyanto, learners may become
more invested in learning the language while they are also becoming aware of
their own culture.

In a similar vein, Taylor’s study conceptualizes L2 motivation and classroom
practices in an Eastern European EFL setting. In the third chapter, she
reports on qualitative findings of two mixed-methods studies she conducted on
teenagers’ English learning motivations in post-communist era Romania. The
first one in particular focuses on student-teacher motivation differences,
while the second one on student understanding of English teaching methodology
and assessment. Taylor found that student motivation was influenced by the
teacher’s engagement with the content and students, teaching style, and
assessment type. While students voiced their need for constructivist and
student-centered learning and resisted traditional teaching practices, they
reported intrinsic motivations toward interacting with the target language
outside the class through social media and entertainment. 

Similarly, studies included in the second section also explore learner
perceptions of motivational factors and challenges they may have in studying
English, but in bilingual education. In chapter four, Kuchah comments on
Francophone young learner's motivational factors for opting for English-medium
education at an immersion bilingual school in Cameroon. Findings of this study
suggest learners’ socio-affective relationship with their English teachers
might have encouraged these learners and their parents to choose
English-medium education over French education. Motivational factors for
opting for English-medium education included teacher’s investment in
relationship building with learner’s home and school, pedagogic practices, and
learner’s attitudes.

Chapter five by Banegas provides an overview of the challenges of English
Language Teaching (ELT) in Argentina. The author pointed out the widening
knowledge gap of learners in secondary schools and learners who attend both
mainstream and private language schools. Findings of the collaborative
action-research study grounded in his classroom experiences using content and
language integrated learning approach (CLIL) suggest that through CLIL
teachers can narrow the gap between emergent language learners and learners
familiar with the target language and create positive attitudes to EFL
learning and teaching. Furthermore, using student-teacher collaboration and
the CLIL-based approach, teachers can enrich their students’ language skills
by designing student-driven content that is emotionally and cognitively
challenging to their students and incorporating the local culture in
multimedia stories.

The synergy between student motivation toward integrated language and content
and adaptation to academia are explored in the third section. In chapter six,
Malcolm reports on Arabic-speaking medical students’ challenges in their
self-esteem and motivation during their first or second year studies in
English for academic purposes. Students identified the acquiring of science
and technology-related content in the target language, high family
expectations, and difficulties with adaptation to college were detrimental to
their learning experiences. Students with a more robust ideal L2 self, which
included a vivid image of themselves as successful doctors, influenced by
family expectations, previous successful learning experiences, and teacher
encouragement, were able to negotiate their identities and cope with
challenges in the new learning context. 

In chapter seven, Woodrow also finds that a variety of factors, including
values, self-regulation, parental support, perceived difficulty, impersonal
nature of courses, education differences in the host country, and other
factors shape the motivational profiles of a cohort of Chinese international
students in a university-affiliated foundation college in Australia. Within
the goal-orientation theoretical framework (Ames, 1992), Woodrow documents
international undergraduates’ transition from a foundation college to
university by examining changes in these learners’ L2 motivation and
motivation to study English for Academic purposes. Findings from interviews
conducted with participants suggest a continual decrease in these students’
motivation and a shift from perceived extrinsic to intrinsic motivation and
then to performance approach goal orientations during their first year of
studies. Factors detrimental to students’ learning included perceived
inadequate English proficiency and a difficult transition period to college.
In order to ease international students’ transition to college, universities
should align pre-sessional course grading with the university grading and
provide scaffolding and ongoing support, such as peer mentoring.

Studies included in the fourth section provide an overview of technologies,
including digital games and mobile applications in various language learning
environments. Since learners interact on these platforms, it is important to
explore the educational potential of technologies in language learning.
Chapter eight and nine focus on motivation and technology, suggesting that
games and mobile-based environments provide a dynamic and fluid space for
scaffolding, problem solving, and skill specializations in the target
language. In chapter eight, Henry examines self-authenticity and motivation
discrepancies in informal and formal learning contexts in Sweden.  Drawing
from the concepts of authenticity (Vannini and Burgess, 2009),  affinity
spaces (Gee, 2005), and culturally responsive pedagogy (Gay, 2000; Moje and
Hinchman, 2004),  Henry suggests that the aesthetically pleasing, creative
online digital gaming environments – where text, still images, video, and
audio coexist – offer users a space for creativity, discovery,  knowledge 
co-construction, and self-expression in the target language, in contrast to
the restricted school environments. However, digital games can be integrated
to other culturally relevant authentic materials to empower students by
cultivating their voice, cultural integrity, individual abilities, in addition
to enhancing their motivation for EFL learning in school. 

Stockwell synthesizes research from studies on language learning motivation
and emerging technologies, including communication, social, and mobile
learning from both learner and teacher perspectives. Major drawbacks of using
technology (such as mobile applications, tablet computers, laptops, blogs,
Wikis, Facebook, and virtual worlds, such as Second Life) for language
learning was that technology was predominantly used in unsupervised
conditions, learners lacked training, technology assistance, and/or sufficient
language proficiency, and some of the language learning tasks did not consider
constraints of the mobile devices (such as small keypads). This literature
review reveals the following: learner attitudes are influenced by existing
technology support, motivation, and other contextual factors; learners might
not transfer learned skills to actual learning contexts; and, when teachers
implement technologies in classrooms, they should consider affordances,
usability, as well as individual and collective preferences.

The fifth section includes studies by Gao and Igoudin on influences of
contextual factors, specifically supportive communities, on adult learner
autonomy and ideal self in ESL and EFL contexts.  In chapter ten, Gao reports
findings of two studies he conducted on autonomous language learners in China.
His findings are in line with research that suggests learners with stronger
ideal L2 self-images are more strongly motivated and learners with higher
expectations and more vivid ideal L2 images are more likely to be autonomous
(Lamb, 2007). In the first study, a physically disabled adult language learner
acquired linguistic competence by creating and engaging in her community of
English learners and by investing in her vision of herself as a competent
English speaker and regarding translation as her meaningful contribution to
the society. In a similar vein, language learners in Gao’s second study were
able to acquire English and develop a positive image of themselves as English
speakers by legitimizing themselves as language learners in an English club.

In chapter ten, Igoudin explores the relationship between social identity and
language learning motivation of adult immigrant language learners in advanced
level ESL courses in community college contextualized in the ELT policies and
programs in California and current research on language learning motivation in
adult education. Using a mixed methods approach, his study found that students
were foremost driven by integrative motivation to learn English because of
their desire for inclusion in the target culture and community. Igoudin
provides pedagogical interventions for engaging adult immigrant language
learners in ESL courses in community college, such as promoting core values
based on respect, fairness, and responsibility, building a relationship with
students, and encouraging learner autonomy through self-assessment. 

The final section by Aboshiba reports on experienced native-speaker EFL
teacher perceptions on literature on English language teaching. Findings of
this study suggests that in-service teacher participants did not question the
notion of “native speaker teacher” in scholarly works, and they resisted
reading academic works about profession, reporting that this literature was
often too abstract, theoretical and detached from their practice. Aboshiba
calls for bridging the gap between researchers and practitioners by
incorporating teacher reflection on research literature and initiating
collaborative research projects between teachers and research to investigate
teacher perceptions and practices and support empowerment. 

EVALUATION     

This volume is unique in that it is a collection of multicultural,
interdisciplinary studies using qualitative (Malcolm, Aboshiba) and mixed
methods (Woodrow, Taylor, Gao). The mixed methods approach and the
longitudinal research design applied in some of these studies offer a deeper
examination and understanding of L2 motivation changes as related to English
language learning worldwide, as studies on motivation and language acquisition
are predominantly survey based. Another strength of this edited volume is the
extensive data collection period employed in some of the studies; the authors
present and analyze data from interviews and class observation collected
between one to two years. 

These chapters provide detailed historical background on cultural, educational
and linguistic contexts in each country, suggesting a link between English
language and educational practices, policies, and ideologies in the host
country. These studies contextualize English language education by providing
historical background on education and linguistic context. For example, after
providing a historical overview on Cameroon’s colonial past and the linguistic
and political controversy on French and English-medium education, Kuchah
explores the influence of English/Anglophone teachers on Francophone children
to pursue English-medium studies. 

In line with socio-constructivist framework, these studies challenge the
linear views on learning, contest monolingual ideologies, traditional,
assessment-based, linear views on language learning and teaching, suggesting
that language learning and teaching are dynamic, and as such they need to be
studied within both the global and local educational, sociocultural, economic,
political, and linguistic contexts.

Even though some studies are loosely connected to SLA theories and based on
thoughtful, although not necessarily methodologically rigorous analyses, this
volume adds to our understanding of motivational factors in English language
learning by offering insightful ideas about the integration of these factors
in EFL/ESL contexts. The authors in this volume have successfully combined
practical pedagogical suggestions with literature on SLA and motivation to
create a volume that effectively takes a step forward in bridging the gap
between research and pedagogy on motivation and language learning in EFL and
ESL environments.

The chapters link research on motivation and SLA to the language classroom,
suggesting that local and contextualized teaching practices have international
resonance. Each study furthers the inquiry on language learning and motivation
in the engagement priorities and further readings sections. These sections
provide a rich set of resources on motivation and language acquisition
applicable in various language learning contexts for graduate students,
practitioners, researchers, and policy makers. Even though these chapters
center on ESL and EFL and motivation in global context, practitioners working
with other languages could benefit from the findings and pedagogical
implications too.

REFERENCES

Ames, C. (1992). Classrooms: Goals, structures, and student motivation.
Journal of Educational Psychology, 84(3), 261-271.
doi:10.1037/0022-0663.84.3.261.

Deci, E. L., and Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and
self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum.

Dörnyei, Z. (2005). The Psychology of the Language Learner. Mahwah: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.

Dörnyei, Z. (2009). The L2 Motivational Self System. In Z. Dörnyei, and E.
Ushioda (Eds.), Motivation, Language Identity and the L2 Self (pp. 9-42).
Bristol, Buffalo, Toronto: Multilingual Matters.

Dörnyei, Z. (2009). Individual differences: Interplay of learner
characteristics and learning
environment. Language Learning, 59(1), 230-248. doi:
10.1111/j.1467-9922.2009.00542.x

Gardner, R.C. and Lambert,W.E. (1972). Attitudes and Motivation in
Second-language Learning. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.

Gay, G. (2000). Culturally Responsive Teaching: Theory, Research, and
Practice.  New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

Gee, J. (2005). Affinity spaces:  from ‘Age of Mythology’ to today’s schools.
In D. Barton and K. Tusting (eds), Beyond Communities of Practice: Language,
Power and Social Context (pp. 214-232). New York, NY: Cambridge University
Press.

Lamb, M. (2007). The impact of school on EFL learning motivation: An
Indonesian case study.
TESOL Quarterly, 41(4), 757-780. doi: 10.1002/j.1545-7249.2007.tb00102.x

Lamb, M. (2012). A self system perspective on young adolescents' motivation to
learn English in
urban and rural settings. Language Learning, 62(4), 997-1023. doi:
10.1111/j.1467-9922.2012.00719.x

Lamb, M. (2013). ‘Your mum and dad can't teach you!’: constraints on agency
among rural learners of English in the developing world. Journal of
Multilingual and Multicultural Development, (ahead-of-print), 1-16.
doi:10.1080/01434632.2012.697467

Moje, E., and Hinchman, K.  (2004). Culturally responsive practices for youth
literacy learning. In T. L. Jetton and J. A. Dole (eds), Adolescent Literacy
Research and Practice (pp. 321-350). New York, NY: Guilford.

Ryan, S. (2009). Self and Identity in L2 Motivation in Japan: The Ideal L2
Self and Japanese Learners of English. In Z. Dörnyei, and. E. Ushioda (Eds.),
Motivation, Language Identity and the L2 Self (pp.120-143). Bristol, Buffalo,
Toronto: Multilingual Matters.

Ushioda, E. (2013). Motivation matters in mobile language learning: A brief
commentary. Language Learning andTechnology, 17(3), 1–5. Retrieved from 
http://llt.msu.edu/issues/october2013/commentary.pd

Ushioda, E. (2009). A person-in-context relational view of emergent
motivation, self and identity. In Z. Dörnyei and E. Ushioda (eds), Motivation,
Language Identity and the L2 Self (pp. 215-228). Bristol: Multilingual
Matters.

Ushioda, E. (2011). Language learning motivation, self and identity: current
theoretical perspectives. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 24(3),
199-210.doi:10.1080/09588221.2010.538701

Norton, B. (2000). Identity and language learning: Gender, ethnicity and
educational change. Harlow, UK: Pearson Education/Longman.

Vannini, P., and Burgess, S. (2009). Authenticity as motivation and aesthetic
experience. In P. Vannini and J.P. Williams (eds), Authenticity in Culture,
Self, and Society (pp. 103-120). Farnham: Ashgate Publishing Ltd.


ABOUT THE REVIEWER

Andrea Lypka is a third year PhD student in the SLA/IT program at the
University of South Florida and an ESOL instructor. Her research interests
include teacher identity, multimodality and individual learning differences.





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