27.817, Review: Language Acquisition: VanPatten, Williams (2014)

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Subject: 27.817, Review: Language Acquisition: VanPatten, Williams (2014)

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Date: Fri, 12 Feb 2016 13:50:57
From: Robert Cote [rcote at email.arizona.edu]
Subject: Theories in Second Language Acquisition

 
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Book announced at http://linguistlist.org/issues/25/25-4731.html

EDITOR: Bill  VanPatten
EDITOR: Jessica  Williams
TITLE: Theories in Second Language Acquisition
SUBTITLE: An Introduction, 2nd Edition
SERIES TITLE: Second Language Acquisition Research Series
PUBLISHER: Routledge (Taylor and Francis)
YEAR: 2014

REVIEWER: Robert Arthur Cote, University of Arizona

Reviews Editor: Sara Couture

SUMMARY

'Theories in Second Language Acquisition: An Introduction' is an informative
yet challenging text comprised of thirteen chapters written by some of the
field’s most notable authors who  explore various topics in SLA. Although it
is described as a text written for the novice reader, there is an overwhelming
variety of complex topics, and the reader will likely require previous
knowledge of the SLA field in order to fully access much of the content.

VanPatten and Williams begin Chapter 1, ''Introduction: The nature of
theories'', by defining necessary terms that will be utilized throughout the
rest of the book. These include basic words like theory, model, hypothesis,
constructs, and explicit and implicit learning and knowledge. This chapter
also introduces 10 possible essential observable phenomena that can be
identified in different theories of SLA (pp. 29-30). These observations are as
follows:

''Exposure to input is necessary for SLA'' (p. 9).
''A good deal of SLA happens incidentally'' (p. 9).
''Learners come to know more than what they have been exposed to in the
input'' (p. 9)
''Learners output (speech) often follows predictable paths with predictable
stages in the acquisition of a given structure'' (p. 10).
''Second language learning is variable in its outcome'' (p. 10).
''Second language learning is variable across linguistic subsystems'' (p. 10).
''There are limits on the effects of frequency on SLA'' (p. 10).
''There are limits on the effect of a learner’s first language on SLA'' (p.
11).
''There are limits on the effects of instruction on SLA'' (p. 11).
 ''There are limits on the effects of output (learner production) on language
acquisition'' (p. 11).

This chapter defines and further explains the observable phenomena as they
relate to SLA. They are important to note because they are all referred back
to throughout the remaining chapters whenever a particular theory involves any
of them. It is important for the reader to realize that not all theories are
comprised of all 10 of the phenomena. Due to the general nature of Chapter 1,
it is very accessible to most readers.

The editors continue explaining basic SLA terminology and information in
Chapter 2, ''Early theories in SLA''. Here, they explore the major, seminal
theories in the field including behaviorism/structural linguistics and
Krashen’s Monitor Theory (see Krashen, 1985). The behaviorist topics include
classical conditioning, its associated role of stimuli frequency, and the
reality of the extinction of abilities due to lack of exposure and/or use (p.
18). Operant or behavioral conditioning is also mentioned, stating that with
regards to language learning, ''Active participation by the learner is
considered a crucial element of the learning process'' (p. 19). This section
also mentions L1 to L2 language transfer, interference, and degree of
contrast.

Chapter 2 continues with Krashen’s Monitor Theory. Distinctions are made
between language learning and language acquisition, and the three major
hypotheses – Natural Order Hypothesis, Input, and Affective Filter – are
briefly introduced. It is interesting to note that in the chapter’s
conclusion, the author’s mention the theory and its component parts having
''considerable criticism over the years'' (p. 31), but then go on to state
''yet for many practitioners (and learners), the most powerful evidence for
Monitor Theory is their own experience'' (p. 31).

Chapter 3, ''Linguistic theory, universal grammar, and second language
acquisition'' by White, investigates the topics of linguistic competence,
Universal Grammar (UG), poverty-of-the-stimulus, and interlanguage. The
chapter is difficult material to digest for a novice, and in my opinion, this
chapter should have been placed further back in the book to avoid scaring away
less knowledgeable readers. Early on, the chapter focuses on how children
become fluent in their L1, whereas adult learners of second languages do not
in their L2. The chapter brings up the notion of an innate, 'unconscious
knowledge [that] does not have to be learned in the course of L1 acquisition;
it is derived from UG' (p. 34). It explains that children also have the
ability to create original and unique utterances that are grammatically
correct without having heard them before (poverty-of-the-stimulus). On the
other hand, adult second language learners exhibit interlanguage, a systematic
and rule-governed language competence that does not adhere to the linguistic
rules of the target language (p. 36) (see Selinker, 1972).

Chapter 3 also explores in detail ''four common areas of misunderstanding
about generative SLA research'' (p. 41). These include ''the scope of the
theory, lack of native-like success in L2, transfer and methodology'' (p. 41).
This section of the chapter is well-written and clear for all readers. 

One challenging aspect of this chapter is the use of wh-movement in both
English and Chinese as examples. It seems to me that the reader would need a
solid background in English (and/or Chinese) syntax to fully understand these
explanations. Another difficult concept is Government and Binding Theory (see
Chomsky, 1981) and its principles, parameters and constraints components.
These are all explained in one page, a daunting concept to absorb so briefly.

In Chapter 4, ''One functional approach to SLA'', Bardovi-Harlig begins by
defining functionalist approaches to language as those in which ''language is
primarily used for communication and does not exist without language users''
(p. 54). The chapter gives good explanations of the function-to-form, also
known as concept oriented, approach which ''identifies one function, concept,
or meaning and investigates how it is expressed'' (p. 54). The focus here ''is
that adult learners of second or foreign languages have access to the full
range of semantic concepts from their previous linguistic and cognitive
experience'' (p. 55). The challenge for the speaker is utilizing this
knowledge and knowing when and how to correctly apply and express it. The
chapter explores longitudinal research studies aimed at observing productive
speech or output, in particular, reverse-order-reports or retelling of stories
by second language learners. The most important findings include ''how various
linguistic means convey temporal reference, how they relate to each other, and
how the balance changes over time'' (p. 68).

Ellis and Wulff focus on ''Usage-based approaches to SLA'' in Chapter 5,
initially stating that language learning is primarily based on learners’
exposure to the target language and that learners induce the rules of their L2
by using general cognitive mechanisms (p. 75). The approaches discussed are so
varied that the authors caution they should be considered more of a framework
than a theory. Usage-based approaches are composed of the following five
constructs: constructions, associative language learning, rational cognitive
processing, exemplar-based learning (connectionism), and emergent relations
and patterns (pp. 75-76). All are explained in further detail in the first
half of the chapter.

Although usage-based approaches are strongly supported by reliable
corpus-based analyses, there are several misunderstandings regarding them,
especially related to exemplar-based learning. These include labeling
usage-based approaches as a new form of behaviorism, ''that connectionist
models cannot explain creativity and have no regard for internal
representation, and that cognitive approaches deny influence of social
factors, motivational aspects, and other individual differences between
learners'' (p. 84). However, the chapter shows that eight of the ten
observable phenomena in SLA are present in this usage-based framework.
Overall, this is one of the most accessible chapters.

In Chapter 6, ''Skill acquisition theory'', DeKeyser ''accounts for how people
progress in learning a variety of skills, from initial learning to advanced
proficiency'' (p. 94), and that this is done via three stages of development
known in the literature by varying names: cognitive, associative and
autonomous (see Fitts & Posner, 1967); declarative, procedural, and automatic
(see Anderson, 2007); or presentation, practice and production (see Byrne,
1986) (p. 95). It is important to note that these stages can be applied to
learning any number of skills, not just language. The key element that allows
someone to progress from one stage to the next is automatization as a result
of extensive practice (see Segalowitz, 2010). The chapter also introduces the
power law of learning, which ''describes the specific way reaction time and
error rate decline as a function of practice…[where] power refers to the
exponent in the mathematical equation describing the learning curve'' (p.
283). 

Chapter 6 also mentions several shortcomings of Skill Acquisition Theory. One
is the rarity of empirical research associated with the theory because of the
large number of participants required and the length of time needed to conduct
studies, both which result in copious data that require a great deal of time
and manpower to analyze. Other issues are misunderstandings regarding the
theory itself. These include the notion that Skill Acquisition Theory either
''explains everything about second language acquisition or nothing at all''
and ''that it is incompatible with a variety of empirical findings in the
field'' (p. 101). DeKeyser clearly explains that both of these
misunderstandings are simply not true.

VanPatten continues his contribution to the text by writing Chapter 7, ''Input
processing in adult SLA'' where the general notion is that input processing
(IP) should be viewed as a phenomenon that comprises ''one part of a complex
set of processes that we call acquisition'' (p. 129). A fundamental assumption
of IP is that ''acquisition cannot happen if comprehension does not occur''
because ''acquisition is dependent upon learners making appropriate
form-meaning connections'' (p. 113). The author then leads the reader through
an in-depth discussion of basic tenets of IP that address different aspects of
creating successful form-meaning connections. This includes the following 10
principles: Primacy of Content Words, Lexical Preference, Preference for
Non-redundancy, Meaning before Non-meaning, First-Noun, L1 Transfer, Event
Probability, Lexical Semantic, Contextual Constraint, and Sentence Location
(pp. 115-122).

VanPatten next presents research based on sentence interpretation tasks and
eye-tracking studies as examples of evidence of IP. He continues by disproving
numerous, erroneous assumptions concerning IP including the beliefs that IP
“is a model of acquisition; discounts a role for output, social factors, and
other matters; is equivalent to noticing; is a meaning-based approach to
studying acquisition and ignores what we know about syntactic processes; is a
pedagogical approach'' (pp. 124-25). All of these topics are clearly explained
and thus accessible to all readers.

One final feature worthy of mention is the extensive list of notes provided at
the end of the chapter. They are useful not only for the further explanations
they give related to the chapter’s content, but they also offer further
resources in addition to the suggested further reading and references.

Chapter 8, entitled ''The declarative/procedural model: A neurobiologically
motivated theory of first and second language acquisition'' by Ullman,
concentrates substantially on psycholinguistics, and novice readers will
surely struggle with its content. There is a great deal of discussion on the
anatomy and chemistry of the human brain and its declarative and procedural
memory systems. There is also very transitory mention of Broca’s and
Brodmann’s areas of the brain, as well as ''the famous patient H.M.''.
However, no further information is provided about H.M., who suffered from
medial temporal lobe (MTL) damage and whose memory disorder was studied by
brain scientists for years (see https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Molaison
for a brief overview).

The section on evidence to support the declarative/procedural model is the
most extensive in the book. It presents correlational studies as behavioral
evidence (p. 144-45), studies on brain lesions as neurological evidence (pp.
145-46), and brain measurement activities, or Event-Related Potentials (ERPs)
as electrophysiological evidence (pp. 146-47). Lastly, PET (positron emission
tomography) and fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) are provided as
functional neuroimaging evidence (p. 147-48). Unfortunately, all of these
complex topics would need to be researched elsewhere to obtain basic,
simplified, foundational knowledge of the concepts before attempting to
understand them in this chapter. Furthermore, not all of the information
presented focuses on the neurological aspects of second language acquisition
in particular, forcing the reader to look elsewhere (see Abutalebi, 2008). 

In Chapter 9, Pienemann and Lenzing discuss ''Processability theory'', or PT,
which is a theory of second language development whose core concepts are
''formed by a universal processability hierarchy based on Levelt’s (1989)
approach to language production'' and ''is formally modeled using Lexical
Functioning Grammar'' (p. 160) (see Bresnan 2001). The chapter relies quite
heavily on grammar to explain PTs handling of second language issues including
''developmental problems (i.e., why learners follow universal stages of
acquisition)'' and ''logical problems (i.e., how do learners come to know what
they know if their knowledge is not represented in the input?)'' (p. 161). 

Examples from English syntax continue in the section on Pienemann’s (1998)
processability hierarchy, which ''is based on the notion of transfer of
grammatical information within and between the phrases of a sentence'' (p.
161). The significance of the hierarchy, which contains six components or
procedures, is based on the beliefs that ''every procedure is a necessary
prerequisite for the next procedure, and the hierarchy mirrors the time-course
in language generation. Therefore, the learner has no choice but to develop
along this hierarchy'' (p. 163). 

The chapter becomes more and more complex as it explores topics like
hypothesis space, transfer of grammatical information and feature unification,
lexical mapping, unmarked alignment, and the TOPIC hypothesis, and Multiple
Constraints Hypothesis (MCH). Fortunately, not only are these concepts
described in detail within the chapter, but most of them are also succinctly
defined in the glossary at the back of the book for quicker and easier
reference. Oddly, the chapter has no conclusion section.

Chapter 10, ''Input, interaction, and output in second language acquisition''
by Gass and Mackey, can be summed up as follows:
The central tenet of the approach is that interaction facilitates the process
of acquiring a second language, as it provides learners with opportunities to
receive modified input, to receive feedback, both explicitly and implicitly,
which in turn may draw learners’ attention to problematic aspects of their
interlanguage and push them to produce modified output. (p. 199)
The chapter presents various aspects of input and output hypotheses, including
noticing, working memory, attention, interaction, negotiation for meaning,
automaticity, and implicit and explicit feedback. One very useful approach is
the use of real-world examples of spoken interaction in both English and
Spanish. This brings the text to life by clearly demonstrating to the reader
certain concepts.

Chapter 10 also mentions the importance of various types of empirical studies
that support the claims associated with input, interaction and output. This
includes studies having longitudinal and cross-sectional designs, case
studies, and involving ''learners in a range of carefully planned tasks'' (p.
192). In fact, the authors provide one of their own studies as an example.
Finally, there are seven pages of suggested further readings and references,
the most of any chapter, giving the reader many options.

In Chapter 11, Lantolf, Thorne, and Poehner present a thorough explanation of
''Sociocultural theory and second language development''. The premise here is
the undeniable importance of human interaction with others as well as with
one’s physical surroundings, known as cultural artifacts. Historically
significant names such as Hegel, Spinoza, Marx and Vygotsky are mentioned at
the start of the chapter, and terms like private speech, internalization, and
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) are explored. The authors write that both
lower and higher mental processes play important roles in language
acquisition. One important focus is on second language ''development in
instructed settings, where activities and environments may be intentionally
organized according to theoretical principles in order to optimally guide
developmental processes'' (p. 208). In fact, the authors state that ''higher
order mental functions, including voluntary memory, logical thought, learning,
and attention, are organized and amplified through participation in culturally
organized activity'' (p. 221). Lastly, several pages are dedicated to Vygotsky
and semiotics, symbols, and ZPD, all worthy of further exploration by the
reader but beyond the scope of this review.

Larsen-Freeman wrote Chapter 12, ''Complexity theory'', which begins by
explaining how the theory is typically used by scientists to describe and
trace ''emerging patterns in dynamic systems in order to explain change and
growth'' (p. 227) in non-language systems. Term such as self-organizing, open,
adaptive, non-linearity and iteration are first introduced as they occur in
non-linguistic settings and then applied to second language acquisition,
however, only briefly. The chapter leaves the reader with unanswered questions
regarding CT in a second language context, requiring further reading
elsewhere. A good reference source is Larsen-Freeman & Cameron (2008), which
provides more details on Complexity Theory and its role in ''language,
language development, discourse and classroom interactions'' p. 240).

The sections on what counts as evidence and common misconceptions are short
and do not address much in the way of second language acquisition. In
addition, the longitudinal exemplary study by Eskildsen (2012) was based on
only two participants, hardly a sufficient sample size to make any general
deductions. The most comprehensive part of the chapter was the extensive
explanation of observed findings in SLA, which included six of the ten. 

The final Chapter, ''Second language learning explained? SLA across 10
contemporary theories'', by Ortega, differs greatly from the rest of the
textbook in that it does not follow the same pattern of offering recurring
sections that are addressed in each of the previous chapters. Instead, it
provides brief summarizes of portions of each chapter as they relate to
certain important topics in SLA. This includes language knowledge and
cognition (pp. 246-250), interlanguage (pp. 251-54), the role of first
language (pp. 254-256), linguistic environment (pp. 256-262), and the role of
instruction (pp. 262-266). There are several informative and useful tables
spread throughout the chapter, which serve as easy-to-read references.
Ortega’s chapter plays an important role as a type of overall summary of the
book, closing with areas of research she believes will need to be further
explored in future SLA research. 

EVALUATION

There are many positive aspects of this book. One is the first chapter’s list
of ten essential observable phenomena that can be identified in different
theories of SLA (pp. 29-30). The ten phenomena are discussed in each
subsequent chapter whenever they are relevant and observable. Another good
component is the conformity of each chapter beginning with Chapter 2. There
are numerous recurring sections that are addressed in every chapter as they
relate to a specific topic including the following: The Theory and Its
Constructs, What Counts as Evidence, Common Misunderstandings, Explanation of
Observed Findings in SLA, the Explicit/Implicit Debate, and Exemplary Studies.
Although the individual chapter themes may be very different, presenting them
using the same format makes it easier for the reader to compare and contrast
the different approaches to SLA.

Throughout the textbook, key terms are bolded, not only alerting the reader to
their importance, but also because they are listed and further explained in
the glossary at the end of the book. There are numerous discussion questions
at the end of each chapter, as well as comprehensive lists of suggested
further readings and references. Worthy of note is that many of the suggested
further readings are immediately followed by a sentence describing their
content and why they are worthy of reading. Finally, each chapter could stand
alone or be read in any order based on the needs and interests of the reader.
As a result, each chapter, except for Chapter 13, addresses only one primary
topic and functions well independently.

Despite its worthy attributes, there are so many different terms that are
presented so briefly that it would be impossible for the reader to internalize
them all during a semester long course. In addition, due to the complexity of
some of the topics, certain chapters are challenging to read and require a
great deal of background knowledge on the part of the audience. The book comes
across as highly academic, resulting in a text that is not very approachable
to novices in the field of SLA. The level of language is less of a problem; it
is the quantity of advanced concepts and the brevity of the explanations that
are the issue. In all honesty, I would not be able to use several of the
chapters with undergraduates getting their first glimpse into the field of
SLA. Novice readers will have to explore some of the topics in more depth in a
more accessible text (see Gass, 2013).

In conclusion, VanPatten’s and Williams’ book touches upon the most pressing
theories and questions in the field of SLA today. It would serve well in
master and doctoral level studies as well as a reference book but not so much
as an introductory text as it was originally intended. It is simply impossible
to give the amount of attention required for each topic in a 15 to 20-page
chapter.

REFERENCES

Abutalebi, J. (2008). 'Neural aspects of second language representation and
language control. Acta Psychologica 128, 466-478.

Anderson, J.R. (2007). 'How can the human mind occur in the physical
universe?' New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Bresnan, J. (2001). 'Lexical-functional syntax'. Malden, MA: Blackwell.

Byrne, D. (1986). 'Teaching Oral English' (2nd Ed.). Harlow, England: Longman.

Chomsky, N. (1981). 'Lectures on government and binding'. Dordrecht,
Netherlands: Foris.

Eskildsen, S. (2012). 'L2 negation constructions at work'. Language Learning,
62, 335-372.

Fitts. P. & Posner, M. (1967). 'Human performance'. Belmost, CA: Brooks/Cole.

Gass, S. (2013). 'Second language acquisition: An introductory course'. New
York, NY: Routledge.

Krashen, S. D. 1985. 'The input hypothesis: Issues and implications'. London:
Longman.

Larsen-Freeman, D. & Cameron, L. (2008). 'Complex systems in applied
linguistics'. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.

Levelt, W.J.M. (1989). 'Speaking: From intention to articulation'. Cambridge,
MA: MIT Press.

White, L. (2012). 'Research timeline: Universal Grammar, crosslinguistic
variation, and second language acquisition'. Language Teaching, 45, 309-328.

Segalowitz, N. (2010). 'Cognitive bases of second language fluency'. London,
England: Routledge.

Selinker, L. (1972). 'Interlanguage'. International Review of Applied
Linguistics 10, 209-231.


ABOUT THE REVIEWER

Robert Cote holds a PhD in Second Language Acquisition & Teaching. For over 20
years, he has worked as a classroom instructor, administrator, and teacher
trainer in high schools, community colleges, IEPs and universities around the
world. His interests include second language writing, peer review, L1 culture
and identity, Generation 1.5 students, special needs and CALL. He currently
holds two Assistant Directorships at the University of Arizona’s Center for
English as a Second Language and the Writing Skills Improvement Program and
also serves as the Associate Editor of Arab World English Journal.





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