27.284, Review: Discipline of Ling; Lang Doc: Thomason (2015)

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Subject: 27.284, Review: Discipline of Ling; Lang Doc: Thomason (2015)

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Date: Thu, 14 Jan 2016 14:54:27
From: Jenanne Ferguson [jenannef at unr.edu]
Subject: Endangered Languages

 
Discuss this message:
http://linguistlist.org/pubs/reviews/get-review.cfm?subid=36077017


Book announced at http://linguistlist.org/issues/26/26-2352.html

AUTHOR: Sarah G.  Thomason
TITLE: Endangered Languages
SUBTITLE: An Introduction
PUBLISHER: Cambridge University Press
YEAR: 2015

REVIEWER: Jenanne Ferguson, University of Nevada at Reno

Reviews Editor: Helen Aristar-Dry

SUMMARY

In her own words, Thomason’s entry in Cambridge’s Textbooks in Linguistics
series aims to “introduce the topic of language endangerment to interested
students and other readers new to the subject” (p. xiii) from a linguist’s
perspective, and this book does exactly that. Its seven chapters cover the
major issues surrounding endangered languages in a forthright and accessible
manner, followed by a glossary of linguistic terminology to assist those new
to the field. Her case studies are drawn from a wealth of contexts worldwide
that not only help the reader grasp  the magnitude of language endangerment
but easily allow for comparison and contrast in understanding the local
dynamics of each situation. 

The preface and introductory chapter present the concept of language
endangerment, and provide a context for some of the terminology used, before
discussing language contact and the various scales developed for measuring
endangerment. Thomason also includes a brief layout of the rest of the
chapters, and then provides a list of sources from which she has taken the
chapter’s examples and cases, and also recommends further readings on the
chapter’s themes. A list of sources follows each subsequent chapter, helping
to direct the reader deeper into the material; these curated suggestions on
each theme are one of the definite strengths of the book. 

Chapter Two focuses on the “why and how” of language endangerment. Thomason
divides the section into six major themes—conquest, economic pressures,
melting pots, language politics, attitudes, and loss of diversity through
standardization—and illustrates each with diverse case studies. The examples
she gives help to reinforce that despite these common global themes, language
endangerment is also very much a locally shaped phenomenon; causes of
endangerment manifest themselves in slightly different ways in each setting,
and negative forces for one group of speakers may affect another group in
other ways, or not at all. Furthermore, she illustrates that in the vast
majority of cases, there is no one factor that is responsible for language
decline and loss.

The third chapter builds on the second, taking a look at five case studies
(Eyak, Cornish, Egyptian, Yaaku, and Mednyj Aleut—and the factors that
contributed to the endangerment and eventual dormancy of these languages.
Nancy Dorian’s concept of “tip”, which describes how an apparently stable
language suddenly declines due to rapid changes in sociopolitical factors, is
then discussed in light of Dorian’s (1981) well-known work on East Sutherland
Gaelic. The rest of the chapter is devoted to the phenomenon of
“semi-speakers” and “rememberers”, which Thomason then links to other
linguistic processes commonly seen in cases language endangerment: attrition
of structural features and vocabulary. Furthering this, Thomason draws on her
strengths as one of the foremost experts on language contact, and presents
cases of replacement, where languages in contact have not been lost so much as
there has been grammatical and lexical substitution that essentially creates a
new variety of the language. In the concluding commentary, she also critiques
some of the terminology surrounding language endangerment and death, a theme I
will return to in the commentary section.

In Chapter Four, Thomason delves into the strong links between linguistic and
cultural loss, illustrating what a community loses when an ancestral language
is no longer spoken. Three strong sections showing speakers’ deeply felt
connections between language and cultural identity, language and artistic
expression and creativity, and language and cultural knowledge provide
compelling arguments—often in the voices of speakers themselves—for the need
to maintain linguistic diversity. Thomason then presents some of the arguments
that are often made in favour of linguistic homogeneity, and subsequently
deftly illustrates that promoting bilingualism in majority-minority languages
is a way to compromise between the need for a “common” language in a nation
and the preservation of diversity. Finally, she notes that while minority
communities’ wishes regarding letting their language “die” must be respected
by linguists and fieldworkers, we must also consider the wishes of future
generations of a community that may want to learn that language. 

Chapter Five moves on from examining language loss as it affects speakers of
those languages to how it affects the sum of human knowledge. Here Thomason
devotes herself to illustrating how losing a language means that losses may
also be experienced by those outside a speech community. She focuses primarily
on the researcher, discussing how losing a language affects our full
comprehension of the natural world, patterns of human history, as well as the
limits of human cognition. Again, well-selected case studies accompany each
theme she presents.

The sixth chapter is highly practical and useful not only for  for students
who hope to work on documenting an endangered language but also for those who
aspire to descriptive and/or linguistic documentary fieldwork in general. She
defines what fieldwork entails, from activities the fieldworker might
undertake, to time spent in the field, as well as the emotional and mental
challenges that may be experienced while doing the work. The section on
working with consultants is especially valuable, as not only does it cover
data collection techniques but it  also discusses key ethical issues regarding
access and equal collaboration with speakers and their communities so as to
avoid exploitation and what has often been considered the theft of knowledge.
Thomason presses for approaches that centre on respect for the speakers and
the language, encouraging new fieldworkers to learn the languages they
investigate (where socially appropriate) and paying close attention to
community norms; finally, she stresses the importance of creating projects and
resources during fieldwork projects that will directly benefit speakers and
learners of the language. The suggested readings listed at the end of this
chapter are particularly rich and should certainly be investigated by
prospective documentary and descriptive linguists who wish to work with
endangered languages.

The final chapter provides an overview of the factors listed by linguists such
as Lenore Grenoble and Lindsay Whaley, Joshua Fishman, and David Crystal that
are needed for a successful revitalization program. Along with numerous
examples pertaining to Modern Hebrew (a language revival project that has seen
perhaps some of the greatest and most widespread success), two other cases
studies, on Pite Saami and Miami, reveal some of those key factors and also
highlight the different types and scopes of goals communities might have in
revitalizing a language. This chapter also returns to some of the themes of
the previous one, in discussing the importance of the fieldworker sensitively
negotiating their role within the linguistic revitalization projects of a
community. Whether waiting to be asked for help after making one’s intentions
known, or actively volunteering, Thomason points out the importance of getting
to know community norms and always placing the needs of the community above
one’s own pursuits and desires. She then summarizes some general types of
revitalization methods, as described by linguists Ofelia Zepeda, Leanne
Hinton, and again, Grenoble and Whaley, covering some of the strengths and
weaknesses of each. Finally, Thomason looks to the future of new technologies
for both revalorizing and revitalizing languages, highlighting the importance
of these tools and spaces for digital natives in particular, while also
engaging with the ethical questions surrounding the curation and proliferation
of this type of linguistic data. 

Following the linguistic terminological glossary, the book includes a full
bibliography as well as three indices: one of language names, another of names
of researchers and writers mentioned throughout the book, and one by subject.

EVALUATION

As alluded to in the summary, this text would be very appropriate for use in
an undergraduate classroom in an introductory course or seminar on endangered
languages. The case studies Thomason presents provide a taste of the variety
of endangerment situations, but of course due to the nature of the book as a
general introduction or overview, only so much detail can be provided with
each. Therefore, in a course plan, this text would best be accompanied by the
full articles discussing these cases, or other articles that reflect the
themes and situations she introduces. As noted previously, the section on
sources and suggested reading at the end of each chapter is valuable for
finding ways to go deeper into the material for student and instructor alike. 
 

Thomason’s writing is very readable, even conversational in places, and the
way in which she intersperses Salish-Pend d’Oreille examples from her own
fieldwork throughout the text provides a strong connective thread; the way in
which she shares these anecdotes and experiences helps to make the book
accessible. Her discussions of work in this community as well as her field
experiences in other settings (e.g. the former Yugoslavia) add another
engaging element to the text, making the fieldwork experience more “real” to a
student or new linguist.

As mentioned, Chapter Six on linguistic fieldwork is particularly strong with
its nuanced discussions of ethical considerations, pragmatic focus on methods,
and developed source list focused on research. This sets this textbook apart
from others that endeavour to introduce the concept of endangered languages,
such as Crystal’s (2001) Language Death, or Grenoble and Whaley’s (2006)
Saving Languages. While both of the aforementioned books provide a similarly
concise yet thorough introduction to the concept of language endangerment, I
feel that Thomason’s decision to devote a chapter to fieldwork was key in
setting the text apart. Many introductory texts are written at a slight
distance from the students and readers they mean to inspire by focusing solely
on theories and cases; discussing the actual process of the work that leads to
what is being presented and theorized can  inspire the reader to think about
actually engaging in fieldwork themselves. Thomason’s inclusion of a
discussion on fieldwork is a definite strength, as she provides practical
information about the work to be done. This, I feel, goes a long way in
attracting more students to working on endangered languages as they can
envision what that work might actually be like. A respectful working
relationship with speakers should come first and foremost when conducting
fieldwork on a language, and her suggestions for conducting community-centred
work that will have some tangible benefit to the community are necessary and
important reminders. I would recommend this chapter for a general course on
field methodology, as it raises many key issues on working in an endangered
language situation about which any student of descriptive linguistics could
benefit from learning.

Thomason also brings up some of the debates regarding the terminology
surrounding “endangered languages”, such as “language death”, and when
considering the power that words hold, this is a critical discussion to have.
She does this in two places in the book, first in the introduction on p. 3,
and then again in Chapter 3 on pp. 67-68. First, she provides the warning from
Dorian (2014) and Perley (2012) that applying the death metaphor to languages
is “ detrimental to small indigenous communities’ sense of vitality and
restorative possibility” (Dorian 2014:13). Thomason suggests using the “more
benign” terms that have been proposed, such as “sleeping” or “dormant”. The
critique arises again when she brings up other terms used by some linguists
such as “linguistic suicide”; Thomason suggests that such phrases obfuscate
rather than enrich our understanding of these situations, as “labels of
violence tend to distract attention from the real and complex sociolinguistic
issues surrounding the processes of language death” (p. 68) and often blame
the victims of language loss. She does continue to use “language death”
throughout, despite the caveats. This choice is understandable, due to its
entrenchment in the field, and many speakers of endangered languages
themselves feel that it is important in drawing attention to the possible
eventual outcome of language attrition. Still, it is a crucial issue to
highlight for those new to the field as well as experienced researchers, as it
is one that often comes to the fore in many endangered language situations
among researchers and/or speakers themselves (see Perley 2012). However, I am
surprised  that she did not take her discussion of this issue further, to
discuss how “endangered” itself can equate speakers with species, removing
speakers’ agency and essentializing the connection between language and
culture in a problematic way (see Cameron 2007). Nevertheless, it is an
important that she has marked this as a debate worth confronting, and the way
she frames it here does present a catalyst for students to begin discussing
and better understanding the issues at hand.

Chapter Seven’s focus on types of revitalization programs and Thomason’s
section on digital practices is an important one, as this definitely seems to
be a direction many communities are taking to revitalize their languages. She
mentions archival-type websites and the translation of platforms such as
Windows into endangered languages, and then briefly alludes to the importance
of social media as a space for youth to use these languages, but I was
surprised that she did not go into more depth here with her examples.  I would
have liked to have seen a bit more discussion of the successful development of
dictionary, conversation and word game apps for many Native North American
languages in recent years, or the use of video games as a tool for
revitalization (see, for example, the success of the 2014 Iñupiaq-language
game Kisima Inŋitchuŋa, “Never Alone”). These revitalization projects are
great examples of current trends, they also illustrate responsible community
partnerships of speakers (and linguists!) with digital developers that deserve
spotlight and encouragement, and would also provide students with examples of
how they too might become involved in projects through fieldwork on endangered
languages. This chapter does provide a good overview of the types of programs
in existence for revitalization and illustrates some of the strengths and
weaknesses through case studies, but it does not discuss as much about how to
actually going about establishing such programs, as Grenoble and Whaley (2006)
does, instead focusing, as described, on the fieldwork aspect of work on
endangered languages.

Overall, Thomason’s book does provide a clear and comprehensive introduction
to the varied research being conducted on endangered languages, and with the
focus on introducing aspects of fieldwork and methods involved, this work will
hopefully pique the interest of many linguistics students to respectfully and
thoughtfully engage in documentary and descriptive work that will benefit
endangered language communities.

REFERENCES

Cameron, Deborah. 2007. Language endangerment and verbal hygiene: history,
morality, and politics. In Duchêne, A. and Heller, M. (eds.), Discourses of
Endangerment, 268—285. London: Continuum.

Crystal, David. 2000. Language Death. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Dorian, Nancy C. 1981. Language Death: the life cycle of a Scottish Gaelic
dialect. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.

--2014. Small-language fates and prospects: lessons of persistence and change
from endangered languages: collected essays. Leiden: Brill. 

Grenoble, Lenore A. and Lindsay J. Whaley. 2006. Saving languages: an
introduction to language revitalization. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.

Perley, Bernard C. 2012. Zombie linguistics: experts, endangered languages and
the curse of undead voices.  Anthropological Forum: A journal of social
anthropology and comparative sociology 22(2). 133-149.


ABOUT THE REVIEWER

Jenanne Ferguson is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Anthropology,
University of Nevada-Reno. She is a linguistic and social anthropologist who
works with speakers of indigenous and minority languages primarily in the
Republic of Sakha (Russian Federation), but also within the context of
indigenous North America. She is currently working on a monograph about
bilingualism, urbanization, and language ideologies among Sakha-Russian
speakers.





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