28.469, Review: Chinese, Mandarin; English; Spanish; Applied Ling: González-Lloret (2016)

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LINGUIST List: Vol-28-469. Mon Jan 23 2017. ISSN: 1069 - 4875.

Subject: 28.469, Review: Chinese, Mandarin; English; Spanish; Applied Ling: González-Lloret (2016)

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Date: Mon, 23 Jan 2017 13:53:39
From: Luciana Forti [Luciana.forti at unistrapg.it]
Subject: A Practical Guide to Integrating Technology into Task-Based Language Teaching

 
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Book announced at http://linguistlist.org/issues/27/27-1881.html

AUTHOR: Marta  González-Lloret
TITLE: A Practical Guide to Integrating Technology into Task-Based Language Teaching
PUBLISHER: Georgetown University Press
YEAR: 2016

REVIEWER: Luciana Forti, Università per Stranieri di Perugia

Reviews Editor: Helen Aristar-Dry

SUMMARY

Research into the integration of technology in foreign/second language
education has seen a steady surge in the past decades, focusing not only on
its affordances, but also on the evaluation of its effectiveness. Non-academic
language teaching contexts have also started exploring new avenues into the
field, although the busy lives of teachers and teacher trainers make it
difficult to delve into the endeavours of educational research. 

This book aims to bridge the gap. It is a guide to the implementation of
Computer-assisted language learning (CALL) in the context of task-based
language teaching (TBLT). Primarily aimed at pre-service and in-service
foreign language teachers, the volume is divided into four chapters, each
related to a specific phase in the development of a technology mediated TBLT
curriculum: defining the concept of “task”, conducting a needs analysis (NA),
designing the tasks, and finally evaluating the curriculum through
performance-based assessment tools. Each chapter is introduced by a brief
overview, and consists of a series of short paragraphs; it ends with a
summary, reflective questions and activities for the reader, as well as a list
of recommended readings. The end of the book provides a longer list of
references and the full set of tables and figures cited throughout the text. 

The first chapter focuses on clarifying the notion of technology-mediated
TBLT, starting from a review of the different ways in which the notion of
“task” has been conceptualised in the literature. In performing a task,
learners “use language to achieve a real outcome” (Willis 1996: 53, cited on
p. 2), with “the intention to convey meaning rather than to manipulate form”
(Nunan 2004: 4, ibid.), which requires them “to process language
pragmatically” (Ellis 2003: 16, ibid.). More broadly, tasks are all the
practical things people do in their everyday lives (Long 1985: 89, ibid.). 

Once the concept of task is operationalised, there is the question of how to
implement the approach. The author presents two methodological options as the
two poles of a continuum of methodological possibilities. On one end of the
continuum, we find the TBLT model developed by Jane and Dave Willis,
consisting of three phases: in the pre-task phase, the teacher introduces and
explains the task, along with all the relevant language that is required in
order to perform it; in the subsequent task-cycle phase, the learners perform
the task; finally, in the post-task phase, the teacher conducts
consciousness-raising activities related to the task that was performed. 

On the other end of the continuum, we find the TBLT model developed by Michael
Long. This model starts from a needs analysis aimed at identifying which tasks
should be targeted and which technology is required and available in order to
perform them. It then makes an abstraction from target tasks to task types,
aiming to identify the common structure of tasks pertaining to different
thematic domains (eg. “making a reservation” is a task type comprising the
target tasks “booking a tour” and “renting a car”). Task types then need to be
transformed into a sequence of pedagogical activities. Long’s approach is
divided into six phases, which can be broadly summarised into needs analysis,
syllabus design and program evaluation. Because it has a more comprehensive
take on technology-mediated TBLT, and a clearer focus on learner-centredness,
the author favours Long’s approach, and structures the book according to the
different steps involved in his model. 

The chapter then provides examples of tools that can be used for
technology-mediated tasks, such as virtual environments (eg. Second Life,
Active Worlds, etc.), games (eg. World of Warcraft, Final Fantasy, etc.) and
Web 2.0 writing tools (eg. Blogs, wikis, etc.). All the tools that are
mentioned are described and followed by practical examples of how they have
been used to perform tasks within specially designed technology-mediated TBLT
syllabi. 

The second chapter deals with the importance of conducting a NA as a
prerequisite in designing a language learning syllabus in general, and
clarifies the specifics of a NA conducted for a TBLT curriculum. In this case,
in fact, it needs to target not only the students’ needs and desires, but also
the tasks that the learners need and wish to perform, along with the
technology that is needed to perform them. The author underlines the
importance of using a triangulation of methods and sources, which can validate
each other in providing a reliable framework to work with. Sources may include
students, teachers, administrators, alumni employers, job descriptions, IT
experts, manuals, CALL experts etc.; methods may include questionnaires,
interviews and text analyses. 

Defining the technological tools to be integrated in a TBLT syllabus implies
also an assessment of the learners’ digital literacy level. For example, the
task of making a hotel reservation online implies being able to switch on a
computer, search the web for a hotel booking site, look through a digital
calendar, use an interactive map, and so on. It also implies the skill of
being able to critically select a website from the list provided by a search
engine.

The final paragraphs of the chapter present some practical guidelines for
teachers wanting to conduct an NA, and show some examples of questionnaire
items aimed at teachers, administrators and students. When addressing teachers
and administrators, the focus is on assessing whether students have the
necessary digital skills to perform a task, and whether the education context
is equipped accordingly. When targeting students, the focus is on motivation,
learning preferences and learning desires related to real-world tasks. For
example, p. 31 provides a sample questionnaire in which learners need to
decide, on a scale from 0 to 3, how important a given task is to them. 

Chapter 3 focuses on the creation, organisation and sequencing of tasks.
Drawing on the work by Carol Chapelle and Cathy Doughty and Michael Long both
cited on p. 35, it opens with the description of the five pedagogical
principles that must guide the creation of a TBLT curriculum: (1) provide rich
input, (2) focus on form, (3) provide negative/corrective feedback, (4)
promote collaborative learning, (5) promote language output. In introducing
these principles, the author points out one of the aspects that differentiates
TBLT from communicative language teaching: the latter is mainly concerned with
achieving fluency, whereas the former aims also at achieving language
complexity and accuracy. 

The organisation of tasks requires a preliminary identification of target
tasks, followed by a classification of target tasks into target types, as
mentioned in the first chapter, with a final phase devoted to the development
of pedagogical tasks from the task types. Here, the author makes a distinction
between pedagogic language tasks (PLTs) and pedagogic technology tasks (PTTs).

The definition of the tasks is then followed by task sequencing. As the author
points out, the principles guiding task sequencing in textbooks or lesson
plans are often based on notions of “grammatical difficulty”, which rely more
on principles of linguistic analysis than on acquisitional research and issues
relating to task complexity. For this reason, the two main theories of task
complexity are discussed, namely Peter Robinson’s Cognition Hypothesis and
Peter Skehan’s Limited Capacity Model. 

According to Skehan’s model, our attentional capacity is limited. This means
that tasks should be sequenced in order to achieve a balance between
complexity and accuracy. Since tasks requiring a higher level of cognitive
complexity are likely to affect accuracy, in order to avoid this, Shekan
advises to sequence tasks according to a gradual increase in cognitive
complexity. This way, accuracy can be focused upon and practiced in the
earlier, less demanding tasks, while not representing an issue in the later,
more demanding tasks. which is why an increasingly demanding series of tasks
may result in either better complexity or better accuracy. Therefore, the
sequencing of tasks should be done by manipulating three factors: code
complexity (with reference to acquisitional research on development
sequences), cognitive complexity (including both the familiarity with the task
and with the technology needed to perform it), communicative stress (in
relation to time constraints imposed by the task, or the number and type of
participants). 

Robinson’s model, on the other hand, emphasises the influence of the context
in which a task is performed, which can in turn influence the learner's
perception of difficulty for that task. His model is particularly relevant to
technology-mediated TBLT. For example, the use of a map application on a
smartphone may lower the difficulty of a task in comparison to using a paper
map, because nowadays learners are used to using digital maps rathers than
paper ones. 

The author shows how Robinson’s model integrates a technology-mediated TBLT
curriculum by comparing a diagram representing traditional TBLT against
another diagram representing tech-mediated TBLT, both in figure 3.1. She then
provides a summary of criteria that can be used as a guide for determining the
sequence of a series of tasks based on their complexity, with reference to
Robinson’s original chart to determine task complexity, which can be found in
table 3.1. Finally, the chapter provides three examples of units from three
different task-based language courses, showing how the different kinds of task
can be sequenced in practice.  

The last chapter of the book is devoted to the assessment of students’
learning outcome and the evaluation of the curriculum. In the case of
students, the assessment needs to be performance-based and summative. In a
tech-mediated task-based curriculum the achievement of a goal is strictly
connected to the ability to perform a task, given that thebeing the task is as
close as possible to real-life dynamics. The author provides an overview of
the tools that can be used to conduct the assessment, including the
observation of the learner in an authentic or simulated context, but also a
range of technologies such as text-based or audio-based CMC systems, virtual
environments, and interactive maps , and so on. 

In relation to the evaluation of the program, and of the material developed
within the program, the author provides a rich list of questions that the
teacher or syllabus author can use to assess the program. Just as for NAs,
here too there is a need for triangulation of resources and methods. The
guiding questions pertain to whether the materials are truly task-based,
whether they fit the specific context and needs, whether technology is truly
integrated and whether it actually enhances language learning. Curriculum
assessment is only rarely present in research, and by citing a few examples of
existing frameworks that can aid the design of a TBLT curriculumcurriculm
assessment, the author advocates the need to make this practice more frequent.

EVALUATION

Author Marta Gonzáles-Lloret is a highly experienced research professional in
the field of technology-mediated TBLT. This is clearly reflected in the
ability to combine a step-by-step practical guide to the implementation of the
approach with a theoretical account of each of the phases involved. The high
accessibility of the book is evident in its structure, based on short
paragraphs, in it is language, plain with little use of references and
citations, and in its content, divided into four chapters mirroring the four
main stagesd involved in the development of a technology-mediated TBLT
curriculum. The accessibility of the book is also achieved by its size, just
over 60 pages, in which the author effectively condenses , within each
chapter, explanations, references to theory and previous research, practical
examples, summaries, reflective questions, activities for the reader and a
section devoted to recommended reading. The schematic nature of the book makes
it fit perfectly within the category of books aimed at teachers. 

In relation to the potential audience of the book, the author states that
“both pre-service and in-service instructors of foreign and second languages
may find sources of inspiration to consider […] and developersdevolopers of
language curricula and materials may benefit from seeing how theoretical
concepts can become real tasks in the classroom through examples of materials
that have been used effectively” (p. x). However, I would think that most of
the readers of this book will be either in-service teachers who have already
gained a grasp over basic teaching principles, teacher trainers, interested in
infusing new ideas into their teacher training programs, or curriculum
developers, directly involved in matching students’ needs and learning styles
with the best materials and activities, and with an effective integration of
technology. Pre-service teachers usually have a lot on their plate, and
depending on the type of teacher training course they choose, may have more or
less time and space for reading a book such as this one. 

One of the many strengthsstreghts of the book is certainly its clarity, one
instanceistance of which can be seen in the way the author summarises and
clarifies Robinson’s criteria for determiningto determine task complexity. A
quick comparison between Robinson’s account (table 3.1) and Gonzáles-Lloret’s
summary (p. 43) will show how the latter is better suited tofor a quicker
implementation. 

Only a few shortcomings are perhaps worth mentioning. The one standing out the
most relates to the editorial treatment of the text. The book is a printed
version of an e-book, and unfortunately, some of the steps required to
effectively adapt the hypertext format to a paper format were not taken. We
read things like “too see an extract of this task, click here” (p. 9), or
“click to see this” (p. 49), and find the titles of websites in bold,
presumably indicating the presence of a hyperlink in the original e-book
version. Unfortunately, there is no sitography that allows the reader to
follow up on the web linksweblinks that are implicitly mentioned in this paper
version. Another possible indication of there being a lack of adaptation
between the original hypertext and this paper version is the fact that all
references to tables and figures are made in bold, and they are all placed at
the end of the book, which slightlyslighlty hinders an otherwise smooth
reading of the book. 

Moving on to the content of the book, in discussing aspects of the integration
of technology in a TBLT curriculum, the author advocates the non neutrality of
technology. The meaning of the statement may appear opaque until examples are
provided. What the author means is that asking a learner to perform a task
with a technological tool requires a prior assessment of his or her digital
literacy in relation to that tool. In this sense, the integration of
technology is not neutral because it determines a potential knowledge gap
which needs to be filled in order to perform the task, but it remains neutral
in the sense that it does not entirely predetermine the way we may use it. 

In listing the main tools that can be used as a basis for designing
technology-mediated TBLT lessons, there is no mention of augmented reality and
mobile assisted language learning: both fields, however, are rapidly
developing and have created a considerable body of research in the space of
just a few years (Burston, 2013; Godwin-Jones, 2016), so they could perhaps be
considered as additional avenues in the development of a technology-mediated
TBLT curriculum. 

Last but not least, Chapter 2 seems to be a simplified and revised version of
a previous publication by the same author (González-Lloret, in González-Lloret
& Ortega, 2014: 23-50), which could have perhaps been integrated in the
recommended reading for that chapter. The earlier publication is however
listed in the references at the end of the book. 

In conclusion, I think that it is safe to say that the accessibility of the
volume will undoubtedly ensure a wide readership. Despite the few
shortcomings, to the best of my knowledge, this publication is unique in its
field: all the other ones are either partially research-based edited volumes
(Gonzáles-Lloret & Ortega, 2014; Thomas & Reinders, 2010), or deal exclusively
with task-based methodology with little or no discussion of the potential
integration of technology (Branden, 2006; Byrnes & Manchón, 2014). This makes
the volume a particularly desirable addition to any university or school
library specialised in teaching methods; the reader wanting to gain a deeper
and better understanding of some of the concepts presented, will be able to
look up the bibliographical references provided. 

REFERENCES

Branden, Kris van den (ed.). 2006. Task-based language education: from theory
to practice. Cambridge, [England]; New York: Cambridge University Press.

Burston, Jack. 2013. Mobile-assisted language learning: A selected annotated
bibliography of implementation studies 1994–2012. Language Learning &
Technology, 17(3), 157–224.

Byrnes, Heidi, & Manchón, Rosa. (Eds.). 2014. Task-based language learning:
insights from and for L2 writing. Amsterdam; Philadelphia: John Benjamins
Publishing Company.

Godwin-Jones, Robert. 2016. Emerging technologies looking back and ahead: 20
years of technologes for language learning. Language Learning & Technology,
20(2), 5-12. 

González-Lloret, Marta, & Ortega, Lourdes (eds.). 2014. Technology-mediated
TBLT: researching technology and tasks. Amsterdam; Philadelphia: John
Benjamins Publishing Company.

Thomas, Michael, & Reinders, Hayo (eds.). 2010. Task-based language learning
and teaching with technology. London; New York: Continuum.


ABOUT THE REVIEWER

I am a PhD candidate at the University for Foreigners of Perugia, Italy. My
research project deals with the use of corpora in Italian as a second language
learning and teaching, with a focus on the acquisition of collocations by
Chinese native speakers. It involves the creation of a corpus informed
syllabus, followed by an experimental evaluation of its effectiveness. I am
interested in the corpus-based analysis of Italian and English learner
language, and in the design of corpus-based pedagogical materials and
activities that are able to aid second language acquisition. I am also a CELTA
qualified EFL teacher.





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