28.2704, Review: Applied Linguistics; Language Acquisition: Caudwell, Hasselgreen (2016)

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LINGUIST List: Vol-28-2704. Fri Jun 16 2017. ISSN: 1069 - 4875.

Subject: 28.2704, Review: Applied Linguistics; Language Acquisition: Caudwell, Hasselgreen (2016)

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Date: Fri, 16 Jun 2017 12:16:42
From: Laura Dubcovsky [lauradubcovsky at gmail.com]
Subject: Assessing the Language of Young Learners

 
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Book announced at http://linguistlist.org/issues/27/27-4714.html

AUTHOR: Angela  Hasselgreen
AUTHOR: Gwendydd  Caudwell
TITLE: Assessing the Language of Young Learners
SERIES TITLE: British Council Monographs on Modern Language Testing
PUBLISHER: Equinox Publishing Ltd
YEAR: 2016

REVIEWER: Laura Dubcovsky, University of California, Davis

Reviews Editor: Helen Aristar-Dry

SUMMARY  
 
“Assessing the language of young learners,” by A. Hasselgreen and G. Caudwell,
 focuses on the language evaluation of children and adolescents, divided into
three age groups of 5 to 8, 8 to12, and 12 to 17 years old. The book addresses
a general audience of educators, parents and specialists interested in the
teaching and testing of young students. It offers a general overview of the
current status of assessment, as well as practical criteria given by the
Common European Framework of References (CEFR). As explained in the
introduction, the book follows a straightforward path, devoting the first part
to developmental issues in first and second languages (L1 and L2 respectively)
and in making correspondences between developmental stages and the CEFR
categories (Chapters 1-3), and the second part to more specific issues of
assessment, from general principles to the particular implementation in each
language skill (Chapters 4-9).  The last chapter offers a summary of the
exposed ideas and age range selection, in the light of linguistic, cognitive
and social perspectives (Chapter10).
 
Among key developmental notions, Chapter 1 includes Piaget’s cognitive stages
(1926) of sensori-motor, pre-operational, concrete operational and formal
operations.  Hasselgreen and Caudwell also focus on the nature and scope of
children’s memory for the purposes of storage, attention and recall, and on
language components that affect comprehension at an early age, such as a
particular lexicon and figurative language, highlighted in meta-analysis
studies of L1 acquisition (Nippold 2006). Above all, the authors emphasize the
nature of L1 literacy, associated not only to maturity and age, but also to
years of schooling and exposure to the environment.  They claim that L1
literacy is a presupposition for L2 literacy, and therefore, any
assessment–particularly of the written language–  may reveal more about
literacy than L2 competence.
 
In Chapter 2 Hasselgreen and Caudwell focus on the L2 development, defined as
development of a second, foreign, or acquired language, e.g. any other
language than the learners’ mother tongue. They examine L2 knowledge and
skills from a communicative perspective, and elevate  word and sentence 
analysis to the macro levels of text and discourse  in order to evaluate
comprehension. . The authors  contribute with an adapted communicative
language ability model  (Hasselgreen 2004) that highlights factors of
maturity, age development, and environment throughout its four components of
(1) microlinguistic, (2) textual, (3) sociolinguistic and (4) strategic
abilities.  The chapter also includes domains of language use, in terms of
topics of communication, purposes of communication, participants in
communication, channel or media people communicate through, and discourse
types/genres of communication.
 
In Chapter 3 Hasselgreen and Caudwell outline main CEFR and European Language
Portfolio (ELP) criteria, frequently used as yardsticks for assessing young
learners’ abilities in European settings. The CEFR/ELP framework offers a
six-level scale to measure overall proficiency and individualized competencies
in reading, listening, writing, spoken interaction and spoken production.
Moreover the evaluative references constitute a comprehensive system for
understanding language in context, follow an action-oriented approach, and
describe language users according to their identity and agency.  The authors
clarify that although the correspondence between age groups and CEFR levels is
not totally clear-cut, it opens up to a better understanding of young
learners’ assessment, by refining  proficiency levels, estimating duration and
ultimate potential achievement, and distinguishing individual and group
differences. 
 
Chapter 4 moves from previous developmental concerns to the book core of
assessment introducing generalities, principles and purposes, distinguishing
between assessment and tests, and underscoring “text plus task” format in the
evaluative items.  Hasselgreen and Caudwell underline the “what-how-who-why”
paradigm that drives the assessment activity and that should be discussed
before any further consideration of test types, evaluative formats, multimedia
testing, etc. The authors focus on distinctive features that contribute to
create a good formative assessment, such as (1) leading classroom discussions
and participating in activities and learning tasks that elicit evidence of
learning; (2) clarifying, sharing, and understanding learning intentions and
criteria for success; (3) providing feedback that moves learning forward; (4)
activating learners as owners of their own learning; and (5) activating
learners as instructional resources for one another (William 2011).  They also
emphasize the quality and variety of the tasks selected for young learners’
assessment, including cognitive, linguistic, interactional, metalinguistic,
environmental and physical tasks (Cameron 2001). 
 
The remaining part of the book addresses the assessment of individualized
language skills. Each chapter follows a similar outline: introduction of the
particular ability, review of  general notions and characteristics, and
presentation of an L2 skill model that comprises task features, levels of
processing and/or strategies, and topic/language knowledge. Chapters finalize
with a comparison between the discussed performance and the CEFR levels likely
to be attainable for each age group. In Chapter 5 Hasselgreen and Caudwell
focus on the testing of reading. They explain specific subskills of
retrieving, interpreting and reflecting, exemplify effective items used in
reading tests, and explain the complex reading scoring system. Above all the
authors point out the narrow relationship between reading and literacy and the
difficulties in separating reading proficiency from developmental issues,
background knowledge and metalinguistic awareness during the assessment.
 
Chapter 6 addresses the testing of writing. Hasselgreen and Caudwell discuss
typical stages of the writing process (preparation, planning, monitoring,
writing, use of aids and revising) under developmental lenses. The authors
elaborate on some of the tasks listed in the L2 writing model, such as
stimulus/visual supports, topic, purpose, addressee/role, genre, style/degree
of formality, medium, length, and cognitive demands.  Finally they summarize
CEFR criteria for judging writing across levels, such as spelling and
punctuation (lower level), words and phrases (middle level), and use of
grammar and organizational structures (upper level).  The authors reflect that
while L2 reading and writing show common dependence on the gradual development
of language and literacy, they also have distinctive receptive/ productive
properties that require specific and well-designed tasks to meet the demands
of each modality.
 
The following two chapters center on oral language assessment. Hasselgreen and
Caudwell clarify that although speaking and listening are done together, they
present them separately for testing purposes. Chapter 7 focuses on testing
speaking, highlighting conditions of real time and reciprocacy (Bygate 1987)
needed in processing spoken language. Main strategies presented in the L2
speaking model are: planning the message, managing the agenda and turn-taking,
negotiating meaning, facilitating and compensating the production, and
achieving and reducing skills for communication. The authors describe
pronunciation/ intonation, fluency, vocabulary, grammar, and message/tone
among main criteria for judging speaking.  After the analysis, Hasselgreen and
Caudwell conclude that speaking abilities seem to have fewer restraints than
reading and writing, especially lacking literate prerequisites at an  early
age. Even very young learners show ease in uttering sounds and maintaining
casual conversations with basic/everyday vocabulary. On the other hand, the
assessment of spoken skills becomes more difficult at early age,   because of
the interaction of several factors during the assessment, such as fewer
opportunities for interaction during oral testing, the broad range of
assessment tasks, and the variability  within the testers' proficiency.
In Chapter 8 Hasselgreen and Caudwell complement previous L2 oral production
with L2 oral reception. First they describe inherent properties of listening,
such as speech rate, degree of pausing, and familiarity of pronunciation. Then
they compare the receptive language skills of listening and reading, which
share commonalities of literal and inference items, as well as scales that
measure informational, interactional and discursive levels of comprehension in
their assessments. Finally the authors present the L2 listening model,
highlighting levels of input decoding, lexical search, parsing and discourse
construction within the listening process. They also discuss task demands that
affect the listening assessment, such as the amount of information to be
processed, the location in the text, the  familiarity of the presented content
and vocabulary, and the immediate or delayed response requested from the
learner (Buck 2001). 
 
The two final chapters are brief and concise. Chapter 9 adds the testing of
vocabulary and grammar, although these aspects were already integrated with
the examined skills of L2 reading, writing, speaking and listening assessments
(chapters 5-8). Hasselgreen and Caudwell draw from Read’s dimensions of
vocabulary assessment (2000) to contrast traditional ways of testing, which
are typically based on discrete, selective and context- independent elements,
with current communicative assessments,  in which vocabulary and grammar
constitute embedded, comprehensive and context- dependent test items (Figure
9.1, p.114).  Chapter 10 serves as a brief summary of the two capital issues
of the book: cognitive, social and language development notions, and general
implications for testing at each age group, reinforced by the visual support
of Tables10.1 to 10.4 (pp. 121-124). 
 
EVALUATION
 
“Assessing the language of young learners” is a short and well organized book,
in which each chapter constitutes the foundation for the following, which in
turn expands topics in a cohesive manner. Hasselgreen and Caudwell contribute
their experience and knowledge to highlight main ideas in the field of
language assessment for children and adolescents. Their clear explanations are
enriched by abundant examples and task-based tests, in line with the
Monographs Series’ purposes of providing the readership with theoretical
information and practical implications.  The chapters also maintain formal
similarities, such as the inclusion of figures and tables that facilitate
first-sight understanding; examples include the graphical representation of
each L2 ability model (Figure 5.1 p.56, Figure 6.1 p.74, Figure 7.1 p.91, and
Figure 8.1 p.108, respectively) and the comparative charts between age groups
and CEFR levels (Table 3.1 p. 34 and Table 5.1 p.60). The book also adds final
appendices that offer detailed information on cognitive, social and language
developmental aspects and scales for assessing writing and speaking among
teenagers (pp. 133-149). 
 
Hasselgreen and Caudwell claim that the presentation of discrete testing
elements and the divisions among reading, writing, speaking, listening 
abilities in separate chapters are driven by their genuine attempt to better
understand the language assessment of young learners. However, they
acknowledge that results may turn quite artificial, and advise examining
language abilities in a comprehensive and integrated manner. Moreover the
authors attempt to overcome traditional dichotomies of receptive versus
productive skills and written versus oral modalities, advocating for a fluid
literate continuum of blurred borderlines. “Assessing the language of young
learners” is a useful manual of task-text items, which follows communicative,
dynamic, and enriching principles, based on what children and teenagers are
capable of doing in their L2. Although Hasselgreen and Caudwell state that the
models, criteria and examples used in the book can be implemented in different
languages and settings to inform the delicate area of assessment, they are
mainly constrained to the European reality, following European Guidelines, and
bringing only English language examples.  Finally the offered bibliography is
appropriate but a little outdated to respond to current demands for young
learners’ assessment. 
 
REFERENCES
 
Buck, G. (2001) Assessing listening. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 

Bygate, M. (1987) Speaking. Oxford: Oxford University Press 

Cameron, L. (2001) Teaching language to young learners. Cambridge, Cambridge
University Press.

Hasselgreen, A. (2004) Testing the spoken English of young Norwegian: A study
of test validity and the role of smallwords in contributing to pupils’
fluency. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Nippold. M. (2006) Later language development. Austin, Tx: pro-ed.

Piaget, J (1926) The language and thought of the Child. New York: Harcourt
Brace.

Read, J. (2000) Assessing vocabulary. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

William, D (2011) Embedded formative assessment. Bloomington: Solution Tree
Press.


ABOUT THE REVIEWER

Laura Dubcovsky was a lecturer and supervisor in the Teacher Education Program
from The School of Education at the University of California, Davis. She has a
Master’s in Education and a PhD in Spanish linguistics with special emphasis
on second language acquisition. Her areas of interest combine the fields of
language and bilingual education. She is currently dedicated to the
preparation of in service bilingual Spanish/English teachers, especially on
the use of Spanish for educational purposes. She collaborates as a reviewer
with the Linguistic list serve and bilingual associations, as interpreter in
parent/teachers conferences and at the school district, and as translator for
outreach programs in museums and school sites, building home/school
connections. She has taught a course that addresses Communicative and Academic
Spanish needed in a bilingual classroom for more than ten years. She also
published the article, Functions of the verb decir (''to say'') in the
incipient academic Spanish writing of bilingual children. Functions of
Language, 15(2), 257-280 (2008) and the chapter, “Desde California. Acerca de
la narración en ámbitos bilingües” In ¿Cómo aprendemos y cómo enseñamos la
narración oral? (2015). Rosario, Homo Sapiens:127- 133.





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