30.254, Review: Applied Linguistics; Language Acquisition: Hyltenstam (2016)

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Subject: 30.254, Review: Applied Linguistics; Language Acquisition: Hyltenstam (2016)

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Date: Wed, 16 Jan 2019 14:08:00
From: Anders Agebjörn [anders.agebjorn at svenska.gu.se]
Subject: Advanced Proficiency and Exceptional Ability in Second Languages

 
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EDITOR: Kenneth  Hyltenstam
TITLE: Advanced Proficiency and Exceptional Ability in Second Languages
SERIES TITLE: Studies on Language Acquisition [SOLA]
PUBLISHER: De Gruyter Mouton
YEAR: 2016

REVIEWER: Anders Agebjörn, Göteborg University

SUMMARY

Kenneth Hyltenstam: Introduction: Perspectives on advanced second language
proficiency

Hyltenstam introduces the anthology by discussing the notion of proficiency,
his main point being that labelled stages of language development, like the
six stages in CEFR (Common European Framework of Reference; Council of Europe
2001) does not “mirror any pre-existing reality. It is nothing but a
methodological procedure for making a complex situation more tangible.” This
contrasts with Pienemann’s Processability Theory (1998), where the stages of
grammatical development are claimed to be psycho-linguistically valid.
Moreover, Hyltenstam underscores that scales used for assessing language
proficiency do not illustrate a way towards native-like proficiency: L2 users
at the topmost level of scales like CEFR are not necessarily “native-like.”
This also holds the other way around: all native speakers need not be at the
topmost level of such scales. The introduction reviews some research into
advanced L2 proficiency, focusing on the role of maturation and aptitude, not
least the studies by Hyltenstam and Abrahamsson (2009).

Lars Fant: Chapter 1. Pragmatic markers in high-level second language use

In the volume’s first chapter, Fant reviews research of non-native use of
pragmatic markers and presents a small study on the use of such markers by
highly proficient speakers of Spanish (L1: Swedish). According to Fant,
pragmatics is under-investigated within L2 research, despite the fact that it
is a central component of language proficiency.

Fant introduces central notions relating to discourse/pragmatic
markers/particles. He himself defines them as “devices for implementing
different forms of ‘modalization’ in discourse” (p. 20). Based on a
“communicative-need perspective” (p. 21), he makes a main distinction between
(i) one-communication management (OM) markers, which the speaker uses to
assign “degrees of formulation accuracy” (p. 20) to an utterance; (ii)
interaction management (IM) markers, that is, “tools for assessing degrees of
intersubjectivity” (p. 20); and (iii) argumentation management (AM) markers,
which assign “degrees of credibility to an utterance” (p. 20). The efficiency
and accuracy with which L2 speakers make use of such markers affects the
fluency and idiomaticity of the performance. Research suggests that these
markers are difficult to acquire, and there may be several reasons for this:
one explanation is the markers’ multi-functionality, that is, their complex
form–function mapping. Moreover, they are often neglected in language
instruction. An interesting suggestion is that the use of pragmatic markers,
contrary to grammar and pronunciation, is also affected by cultural beliefs
and self-image: “an identity construal built on primary socialization may
become an obstacle to targetlike behaviour” (p. 27).

The study focuses on discourse markers used by two native speakers and two
highly proficient L2 speakers of Spanish (L1: Swedish), who participated in a
simulated negotiation. The author observes that, even though measures like
lexical diversity and mean length of utterance indicate no difference between
the native and non-native speakers, their use of discourse markers reveals
subtle differences. To some extent, these may be explained in terms of
cultural differences between Northern and Southern Europe. However, it could
also be claimed that accurate usage of certain markers, compared to others,
requires more cognitive resources. In particular, “[t]he AM subcategories
could in fact be conceived of as a hierarchy of cognitive complexity”, some
operating within phrases or clauses, other between clauses, and the
cognitively most complex type on “the encompassing text level” (p. 33). The
author concludes that these different types of pragmatic markers could be a
good testing-ground for a cognitive complexity hypothesis, according to which
difficulty is an effect of complexity.

The article presents an interesting and understudied research area in a
comprehensible and accessible way.

Inge Bartning: Chapter 2. Morphosyntax and discourse in high-level second
language use

The point of departure for the second chapter is the observation that L2
learners continue to develop both discourse features and “fine-grained purely
grammatical phenomena” (p. 43) even at near-native-like proficiency levels.
The six developmental stages of the scale for French L2 morphosyntax,
developed by the author and colleagues (Bartning & Schlyter 2004), are
presented. The distinction between so-called A-forms and B-forms of the
interlanguage is discussed: A-forms are simplified target-language forms under
development while B-forms are non-target-like forms that emerge and eventually
disappear in the interlanguage system. So-called state-of-the-art research on
L2 development is reviewed; discussed domaines are (i) tense, mood and aspect,
(ii) subject-verb agreement, (iii) noun phrase morphology, (iv) discourse, (v)
syntactic complexity, and (vi) information structure. 

Preliminary results from a research project focusing on “features pertaining
to levels of high proficiency” are presented. Oral production and grammatical
judgement data were collected from ten highly proficient non-native speakers
of French (L1: Swedish) who had all lived in Paris for 15–30 years. The
preliminary analysis indicates that gender is a problematic feature in these
near-native users. Regarding discourse, it is discussed whether the number of
constituents in the theme part of the utterance can be used as a measure for
discourse complexity. Several notions that could explain difficulties in
advanced L2 learners (“potentially explanatory factors”, p. 40) are discussed,
for example “reflexes of bilingualism”, markedness, complexity, interfaces,
frequency effects, and the explicit–implicit learning distinction.

The reviewers found the text difficult to follow in parts. They felt it could
need a bit more polishing and restructuring to improve the flow of ideas.

Camilla Bardel: The lexicon of advanced L2 learners

This chapter is an overview of studies on the mental lexicon and vocabulary in
language learners in general and in vocabulary assessment in particular. The
author defines different levels of highly proficient L2 speakers, namely
advanced, near-native and native-like. The chapter then continues with how
vocabulary, along its different dimensions, can be assessed and deals with
some limitations in assessing vocabulary knowledge. It also discusses the
notion of a word and what it means to know a word. The author notes a
difference between L1 and L2 vocabulary in terms of the organization in the
mental lexicon. She also talks about cross-linguistic influence and transfer,
both positive and negative. For assessment, she mentions the importance of
depth and breadth of word knowledge. In the beginning, she says that
native-like L2 speakers have never been observed, but in the conclusion she
says that, theoretically, there are no limitations as to how well you can
learn an L2 and that the more proficient one becomes, the more similar the L2
mental lexicon will be to the the L1 mental lexicon, for example in terms of
semantic relations. 

The chapter is well written and informative. It is a good introduction to L2
lexicon acquisition, but possibly too basic for the audience.

Britt Erman, Fanny Forsberg Lundell & Margareta Lewis: Formulaic language in
advanced second language acquisition and use

The authors present how formulaic sequences can be extracted from corpora
using statistical methods, how formulaic sequences are acquired according to
psycho-cognitive approaches, and how formulaic sequences are explained in
linguistic theories. They then go on to formulaic sequences in second language
acquisition. The remainder of the chapter is an overview of different studies
dealing with spoken and written formulaic expressions in advanced language
learners. They point out the paucity of studies focusing on very advanced
learners, which is possibly due to the difficulty of defining very advanced
learners.

The chapter is clearly organised and well-written.
 
Alan McMillion & Philip Shaw: Reading proficiency in advanced L2 users

In this chapter, the authors concentrate on reading proficiency in advanced
adult L2 users. The authors investigate which compensation strategies might be
used by less proficient yet advanced L2 readers in comparison to L1 readers.

First, they define the notions of reading, proficiency, and advanced, and they
clarify, among the multiple meanings and views of these terms, the ones that
they will be looking at. They also raise some issues that stem from these
definitions. In the next section, the authors describe a model of L1 reading
processes, focusing both on low level processes such as converting visual
input to linguistic representations and high level processes such as inference
and linking of propositions. They also underscore the importance of background
and genre knowledge on the reading process.

The authors then give a view of L2 reading processes, and compare it to the L1
model. One reason for slower processing in L2 readers might be cultural
differences and background knowledge of different cultures. Another important
factor is L1 transfer. Indeed, between closely related languages, transfer is
generally positive, but even for more distant languages, different kinds of
transfer can facilitate reading, suggesting that “high level processes are
independent of language pair” (p. 163). Another point of difference is
vocabulary size, which for L1 populations correlates with literacy skills and
automaticity while for L2 populations it correlates with L2 proficiency and
only very indirectly relates to literacy skills.

Finally, the authors conclude by presenting some findings, namely that
depending on how equivalence of L1 and L2 groups is defined, the number of
“native-like” readers is different and the conclusions that can be drawn are
different. In general, it can be said that advanced L2 readers can reach
native-like proficiency and that these readers often outperform L1 users on
communicative tasks.

The contribution of the chapter to the anthology is important. However, for
the reviewers, it was sometimes difficult to follow.

Kingsley Bolton: Linguistic outsourcing and native-like performance in
international call centres: An overview

Bolton shows that the international call center industry, in for example the
Philippines, is highly relevant to the academic discussion about notions such
as language ideology and policy, the native speaker, and “World Englishes.” An
aim of the chapter is to problematize the notions “language proficiency” and
“native speaker.” Bolton makes a clear distinction between acquisitional and
sociological approaches to World Englishes, like the variety spoken (as a
second language) in the Philippines. He discusses whether one can speak of a
native speaker of Philippine English. A central notion for the paper is
“passing” – the ability to be perceived as a native speaker.

Bolton presents a research project on the international call centre industry
in for instance the Philippines, where the number of employees increased from
a thousand to a million between 2000 and 2015. Using observational data,
interviews, and recorded conversations between call center staff and customers
from the US, collected during fieldwork, he aims at answering the following
research questions: To what extent is native-like behaviour expected from and
achieved by call center staff? What do the demands from the employer look like
and what is the profile of a successful call situation? What strategies does
the staff use to pass as native speakers?

Analysing the interviews, Bolton finds that most Philippine call center staff
in this study were at an intermediate or high proficiency level of English;
however, they spoke a “distinctive Philippine accent” (p. 200). Even though
this accent is acknowledged by linguists, the call center industry tries to
neutralise it. The staff is monitored by team leaders and those who speak with
an American English accent and with high proficiency are promoted quickly.
Analysing a representative conversation between a US caller and a call center
employee, Bolton observes that the US costumer indeed uses more non-standard
forms than the second language speaker. It is also observed that the employee
uses advanced skills to guide the caller “through a complex explanation” (p.
205). Thus, with an action-based proficiency scale, like CEFR, the non-native
could very well be assessed as more proficient than the native caller.

Bolton ends the article by discussing interviews with three gay persons
working at the call center. There is a “performativity in their workplace
linguistic behaviour” (p. 207), Bolton summarises: a male staff, who calls
himself Sunshine when talking to customers, does not only pass as native
speaker of English – he also passes as a female American. To conclude, Bolton
points to the “multi-layered possibilities in researching language use in the
call centre context” (p. 208).

The reviewers find the paper well written, interesting, and surprising.

Kenneth Hyltenstam: The polyglot – an initial characterization on the on the
basis of multiple anecdotal accounts

In Chapter 7, Hyltenstam presents a research project where he has gathered
anecdotal information about 94 polyglots. He defines a polyglot as someone
having acquired at least six languages after puberty to a high level of
proficiency. By comparing their histories, Hyltenstam aims at revealing
“particular recurring patterns that are suggestive for a more formal
characterisation of polyglots” (p. 217). One conclusion is that “the
phenomenon of polyglotism is extremely rare” (p. 219). Two of the 94 people in
the list are described in more detail: Harald Williams (1876–1928), a “born
linguist” who was proficient in 20 languages at the age of 23, but who did not
have any particular mathematical skills, and Alexander Schwartz (born 1926),
who was a skilled language learner and mathematician. For Williams, languages
were encyclopedic knowledge, whereas for Schwartz, languages were systems.

The following observations are based on Hyltenstam’s list: polyglots generally
treat languages as objects, and they are motivated learners. Many of them are
also keen to inform others about the languages they know and about how to
learn languages. Most of them work professionally with languages in one way or
another (they are writers, translators, diplomats, linguists etc.), but only
three of 94 were teachers. They are often self-taught; for the majority of
them, learning a language is not a social activity “but rather an individual
pleasure“ (p. 226). Only two of the 94 were non-academics: a Finnish gardener,
who spoke 15 languages fluently, could read bout 100 languages, and knew the
vocabulary of 50 languages more; and a blacksmith who taught himself 50
languages. Some of them also created their own languages. Of the 94 names in
the list, only 3 are females, which, according to the author, is “surprising
given the well-established female advantage in language-related tasks in
general” (p. 228). Some of them also had other special interests and
abilities, like math and music.

The text is interesting and well written. The subject is fascinating, and it
is not hard to see how this research can inform theory construction of
linguistics and language learning, as well as general cognition.

Kenneth Hyltenstam: The exceptional ability of polyglots to achieve high-level
proficiency in numerous languages

Chapter 8 is a direct continuation of the previous chapter. Here, Hyltenstam
aims at providing “a comprehensive account of current knowledge about
polyglots” (p. 241). Based on this account, he also points out a direction for
further research on the subject. After having presented some case studies –
two on “[n]ormally functioning polyglots” (p. 242) and two about so-called
savants – the author reviews theoretical explanations for such cases. The main
focus is the relation between environment and genetically influenced
preferences. Further research on polyglots should, Hyltenstam concludes, focus
on the role of motivation, learner autonomy (polyglots are often self-taught),
aptitude, and metalinguistic awareness. Moreover, one of the most salient
features of polyglots as a group is their treating languages as systems. Thus,
the relation between linguistic knowledge and other types of knowledge in
polyglots is an interesting area of research. Finally, an important question
is whether there are any cerebral correlates of polyglotism: “The main issue
is still to what extent polyglot brains are different because the language
learning experience has changed them and to what extent they are differently
predisposed for handling linguistic material from the start, i.e. how does the
nurture-nature entanglement or complex interact to create cerebral
differences?” (p. 268).

The article is very well written and clearly demonstrates that research on
extraordinarily proficient second language learners may contribute to the
theoretical understanding of linguistics in general and second language
acquisition in particular.

GENERAL EVALUATION

Hyltenstam introduced the book Advanced Proficiency and Exceptional Ability in
Second Languages by stating that research into these exceptional second
language learners “has the potential to contribute with new theoretical
insight into what the acquisition and use of second language is all about” (p.
v). In the reviewers’ opinion, the book is successful in demonstrating that
this is the case. Despite varying quality of the contributions, the overall
impression is that the book presents new and interesting perspectives on the
broad field of second language acquisition. The first five chapters of the
book introduce different domains of second language research – pragmatics,
lexicon, morphosyntax, formulaic language, and reading – focusing on the
“Advanced Proficiency” part of the book’s title. Some of these introductions
are suitable for students interested in language acquisition as well as
researchers. The last three chapters are rather devoted to the “Exceptional
Ability” part of the title. These chapter provide interesting – even though
mostly anecdotal – stories of successful and extraordinary language learners.
The reviewers believe that these are highly interesting for anyone interested
in second language acquisition.

REFERENCES

Bartning, I., & Schlyter, S. 2004. Itinéraires acquisitionnels et stades de
développement en français L2. Journal of French language studies, 14(3),
281-299.

Council of Europe 2001. Common European Framework of Reference for Languages:
Learning, teaching, assessment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 

Abrahamsson, N., & Hyltenstam, K. 2009. Age of onset and nativelikeness in a
second language: Listener perception versus linguistic scrutiny. Language
learning, 59(2), 249-306.

Pienemann, M. 1998. Language Processing and Second Language Development:
Processability Theory. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.


ABOUT THE REVIEWER

Anders Agebjörn is a PhD candidate in Swedish as a second language, focusing
on second language acquisition of morphosyntax and semantics. David Alfter is
a Phd candidate in computational linguistics, working on automatic vocabulary
complexity assessment for second language Learners of swedish. Both work at
University of Gothenburg, Department for Swedish.





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