32.1087, Review: Applied Linguistics; Language Acquisition: Schwieter, Benati (2019)

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Subject: 32.1087, Review: Applied Linguistics; Language Acquisition: Schwieter, Benati (2019)

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Date: Thu, 25 Mar 2021 16:55:18
From: Alexandra Galani [algalani at uoi.gr]
Subject: The Cambridge Handbook of Language Learning

 
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Book announced at http://linguistlist.org/issues/31/31-1917.html

EDITOR: John W. Schwieter
EDITOR: Alessandro  Benati
TITLE: The Cambridge Handbook of Language Learning
SERIES TITLE: Cambridge Handbooks in Language and Linguistics
PUBLISHER: Cambridge University Press
YEAR: 2019

REVIEWER: Alexandra Galani, University of Ioannina

SUMMARY 

“The Cambridge Handbook of Language Learning”, edited by John W. Schwieter and
Alessandro Benati, is a collection of 32 chapters. It includes lists of
figures, tables, contributors, acknowledgements and an index. 

In “Introduction”, John W. Schwieter and Alessandro Benati define second
language acquisition (SLA) and outline the main research questions in the
field prior to providing a sketch of each chapter. 

Part I: Theories

Jason Rothman, Fatih Bayram, Ian Cunnings and Jorge González Alonso offer an
overview of the main “Formal linguistic approaches to adult L2 acquisition and
processing” in Chapter 1. They focus on generative approaches and compare them
to data-driven ones. Attention is paid to the acquisition of morphosyntactic
structures (e.g. in English and Spanish) and to the interface of morphosyntax
with semantics and pragmatics. Reference is made to psycholinguistic and
neurolinguistic methodologies adopted when investigating L2 language
processing. 

In Chapter 2, Nick C. Ellis and Stephanie Wulff discuss “Cognitive approaches
to second language acquisition” with a focus on usage-based theories.
According to the exemplar-based rational contingency analysis, L2 learners
acquire constructions, the acquisition of which is influenced by salience,
contingency and learned attention. They benefit from form-focused instruction,
as it “recruits learners’ explicit and conscious processing capacities” (p.
55).         

In Chapter 3, “The qualitative science of Vygotskian sociocultural psychology
and L2 development”, Rémi A. van Compernolle shows how Vygotsky’s
sociocultural psychology concepts (i.e. zone of promixal development,
perezhivanie “personal experience) can be applied to qualitative analyses in
SLA. Toward this end, he reviews study abroad, classroom praxis and teacher
education studies.  

John Truscott and Michael Sharwood Smith examine “Theoretical frameworks in L2
acquisition” in Chapter 4: interlanguage theory, the creative construction
approach, the generative approach, processability theory, the modular online
growth, the use of language framework, the five graces framework. They look at
the similarities and the differences between the last two frameworks in terms
of the stand they take on cognition, innateness, language modularity and
learning. The chapter concludes with notes about future research.  

Part II: Methods

Peter I. De Costa, Wendy Li and Hima Rawal look into “Qualitative classroom
methods” in Chapter 5. They first refer to the characteristics of
classroom-based qualitative research (CBQR): social aspects of learning (i.e.
identity, language socialisation) and features identified by classroom
discourse analysis. Methodologies such as conversational analysis, narrative
inquiry, case study, action research, ethnography and grounded theory are
discussed. In each case, they make reference to an exemplar study and
highlight the research questions, the framework, the methods, the participants
to which the study was addressed and the findings.     

In Chapter 6, Charlene Polio and Jongbong Lee review “Experimental studies in
L2 classrooms”. Once they define experimental and classroom research, they
briefly offer a historic overview of experimental research in language
teaching environments (p. 140). Based on Gilmore’s (2011) quasi-experimental
study, they highlight issues researchers should pay attention to (i.e.
independent/dependent variables, validity). They provide a list of
experimental classroom studies carried out during 2012-2017 and comment on the
independent and the dependent variables as well as their research design. 

In Chapter 7, “Action research: Developments, characteristics, and future
directions”, Anne Burns first presents an overview of educational action
research (AR) prior to focusing on its development in language education. The
benefits for language teachers, when they act as action researchers, are
sketched. AR may investigate the conditions under which research should be
conducted in language teaching. It also looks into teacher identity and
teacher needs as well as the processes action researchers undergo during their
training. A crucial aspect of the field is its sustainability.     

In Chapter 8, Nina Spada discusses “Classroom observation research”. Different
approaches to observation research (OR) are presented (interaction analysis,
discourse analysis, ethnography). She focuses on interaction analysis schemes
(Flander’s interaction analysis categories, foreign language interaction
system, the Colorado and the Pennsylvania projects), observation schemes
(target language observation scheme (TALOS), communicative interaction (CI)
system, communicative orientation of language teaching scheme (COLT)) and
observation instruments (category and sign systems, rating scale). Observation
researchers deal with reliability and validity issues as well as the units of
their analyses. Studies based on TALOS, CI, COLT and the foci for observing
communications used in settings (FOCUS), are discussed in detail. Finally, she
refers to studies which are based on narrowly-focused observation systems and
explore issues such as teachers’ reactions to student errors and L1 teachers’
use.    

Leah Roberts reviews “Psycholinguistic and neurolinguistic methods” in Chapter
9. Self-paced reading sheds light on incremental processing and grammatical
knowledge, while eye-tracking is used when examining reading ambiguity,
grammatical and referential processing. On the other hand, neurolinguistic
methods -such as the electroencephalogram (EEG), the event-related potential
(ERP) technique and the functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)- are used
in studies on syntactic processing.   

Part III: Skill Development 

In Chapter 10, Jaemyung Goo discusses the role of “Interaction in L2
learning”. He first refers to the Interaction Hypothesis (Long, 1996) and to
studies which show the benefits of negotiated interaction for L2 learning
(i.e. for L2 comprehension and production, the value of input). It is shown
that corrective feedback (CF)--explicit correction, recasts, repetitions,
elicitations, clarification requests, metalinguistic feedback (Lyster and
Ranta, 1997)--may contribute to L2 development. Interactions are influenced by
factors, such as learners’ proficiency, structure and interlocutor target
types, age, teaching experience, task complexity, as well as by cognitive
factors, such as working memory in relation to task design and planning,
language aptitude and anxiety, learners’ cognitive style, self-confidence and
creativity. The chapter concludes with notes about the incorporation of
interactions in task-based language learning (TBLL).      

Dustin Crowther and Susan M. Gass discuss “Speaking” in L2 learning in Chapter
11. L2 speakers’ speaking skill in Chinese, French, Russian and Spanish were
the lowest developed based on the findings of a database about oral
proficiency. The authors highlight the role speaking plays in learners’ L2
development in conjunction with the feedback they receive. Global constructs
(accentedness, comprehensibility, intelligibility), L2 speakers’ fluency
(cognitive, utterance), communicative performance (grammatical,
sociolinguistic, strategic, discourse), age, ethnic group affiliation, first
language (L1), study abroad periods and willingness to communicate affect
listeners’ perception of the L2 produced speech. Pedagogical interventions
(i.e. explicit pronunciation instruction, speaking tasks) which may prove
beneficial for the development of L2 oral skills are highlighted.  

In Chapter 12, “Second language listening: Current ideas, current issues”,
John Field briefly reviews the comprehension approach and current theories
(i.e. skill-based and listener-based accounts) regarding L2 speakers’
listening development. L2 speakers face various challenges when developing
their listening skills, e.g. form and speaker variability, phoneme features,
word boundaries. Research has also been focused on listening
strategies--whether strategies are related to successful listening development
or whether training on listening strategies leads to listening proficiency.
The use of videos and authentic material, vocabulary knowledge, phoneme
perception, accent familiarity, double play of recordings and low-levels of
listening anxiety contribute to the development of listening proficiency.   

Elizabeth B. Bernhardt and Cici Malik Leffell explore “Contemporary
perspectives on L2 upper-register text processing” in Chapter 13. They define
advanced reading and provide a literature overview (1991 and beyond). Research
topics mainly concern vocabulary knowledge, affective features, reading
strategies, L1/L2 relationship, instruction. They note that limited attention
is paid to L2 learners’ reading comprehension of advanced-level texts and
discuss studies which and show how L2 learners can become “advanced-level
readers” (p. 333), i.e. use of technology, direct instruction, extensive
reading.         

In Chapter 14, Rosa M. Manchón and Olena Vasylets discuss “Language learning
through writing: Theoretical perspectives and empirical evidence”. Writing
tasks contribute to L2 development, as writing and written CF have the
following affordances: time availability to produce a written text, text
visibility, problem-solving nature. Changes in L2 learners’ grammatical and
explicit knowledge are expected as a result of writing activities. Evidence
for the benefits of writing in L2 development comes from task modality,
complexity, repetition and writing CF studies.    

Part IV: Individual Differences

In Chapter 15, Zhisheng (Edward) Wen and Shaofeng Li explore “Working memory
in L2 learning and processing”. They discuss the characteristics of working
memory (WM) (e.g. its limited capacity), its structure and its relation to
long-term memory. The rest of the chapter presents the findings of predictive
and experimental studies; phonological WM plays a role in L2 vocabulary and
grammar learning, whereas the executive WM component in L2 reading and
speaking skills learning.    
Gisela Granena discusses “Language aptitudes in L2 acquisition” in Chapter 16.
She defines language aptitude (LA) and briefly reviews relevant theoretical
treatments. She refers to studies which exemplify the role LA plays in
naturalistic and instructed L2 learning. She shows how the aptitude-treatment
interaction (Cronbach and Snow, 1977) can be applied to L2 teaching. The
chapter concludes with remarks about future research.          

In Chapter 17, “Language learner motivation: What motivates motivation
researchers?”, Stephen Ryan defines motivation and links it to language
learning (LL). He shows how different theoretical treatments to L2 motivation
that have been proposed in the literature have shifted their focus in relation
to the questions they address and the methodologies they adopt; from a
social-psychological to a socio-educational perspective, from instructed
classroom learning to learners’ intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and
self-realisation, from quantitative to qualitative analyses. New areas of
research include the ways LL processes are affected by motivation, language
learner psychology and the relationship between motivation and student
engagement (pp. 422-424).  

In Chapter 18, “A new look at “age”: Young and old L2 learners”, Carmen Muñoz
discusses the role of age in foreign LL. She reviews studies which investigate
age effects in early foreign LL and in mid- and late adulthood. In the first
case, late starters are more advantageous than early starters and foreign LL
in instructed teaching environments is affected by various factors (i.e.
cognitive abilities, class size, literacy, input). In the second case, and
despite the limited amount of studies, age effects are also subject to
factors, such as learners’ individual differences, attitudes and experiences,
educational level, learning strategies, input, feedback and interaction. She
notes that emphasis should be placed on longitudinal studies.      

In Chapter 19, Ron Darvin and Bonny Norton examine the role “Identity” plays
in LL. They refer to the “sociological construct of investment” (p. 453), i.e.
speakers’ linguistic capital enables them to claim their positions in the
community, something which further affects the amount of effort they put in
the learning process. Technological advancements (e.g. instant messaging,
online platforms) shape speakers’ identities and ideologies through
globalisation. According to Darvin and Norton’s (2015) model of investment,
investment is found “at the intersection of identity, capital and ideology”
(p. 457). Research on language learners’ identities can be now based on
electronic corpora, collections of texts, online and offline learners’ digital
practices. The chapter concludes with notes on the challenges when conducting
research in this field.      

Part V: Pedagogical Interventions and Approaches 

Alessandro Benati and John W. Schwieter discuss “Pedagogical interventions to
L2 grammar instruction” in Chapter 20. They sketch theoretical treatments
(i.e. monitor theory, universal grammar, processability theory, input
processing, skill-learning, interaction hypothesis, sociocultural theory)
prior to presenting various teaching methods (e.g. grammar-translation,
direct, audio-lingual, total physical response, communicative language
teaching, content/task-based instruction, focus-on-form,
present-practice-produce). Pedagogical interventions for grammar instruction
are highlighted: focus on form, input orientated (processing instruction,
input enhancement, discourse approach), grammar orientated, interaction
orientated, CF (recasts, clarification requests, metalinguistic feedback,
direct elicitation), output orientated (dictogloss, jigsaw/structured-output
tasks)).       

Michael H. Long, Jiyong Lee, and Kyoko Kobayashi Hillman focus on “Task-based
language learning” in Chapter 21. Problems related to grammar-based language
teaching are first discussed (i.e. issues related to input, interaction and
output quality, learnability, quantity of practice and intentional learning).
Following they move onto a sketch of the six stages of the successful
implementation of TBLL and teaching: needs analysis, syllabus design,
task-based materials, methodological principles and procedures, task-based
assessment and evaluation.   

In Chapter 22, Roger Gilabert and Joan Castellví discuss “Task and syllabus
design for morphological complex languages”. General remarks on the
morphological system in Russian and the teaching approaches that have been
followed so far are first offered. They show how linguistic difficulty (LD)
-in the sense of structural and cognitive complexity- can be tackled in TBLL
models. They claim that LD in such approaches may contribute to task and
syllabus design. Reference is made to a task used in a Russian learning class
in which LD is related to conceptual demands, cognitive load, the features
students need to acquire and the sequence these features appear in. LD is
greater at lower language levels. Recommendations for task and syllabus design
when teaching Russian are provided: needs analysis for task selection,
targeting grammatical forms, balancing complexity and LD in the tasks
designed, designing different focus on form tasks and paying attention to the
sequencing of tasks.    

David Little’s discussion on “Proficiency guidelines and frameworks” in
Chapter 34 focuses on the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign
Languages proficiency guidelines (ACTFL PG) and the Common European Framework
of Reference for Languages (CERF). The origin and the purpose of each
framework are discussed. The approach they take on language use as means to
master proficiency as well as the frameworks’ impact on assessment, curricula
and pedagogy is examined.      

Carol A. Chapelle discusses “Technology-mediated language learning” (TMLL) in
Chapter 24. Technology-mediated tasks are used for grammar, vocabulary,
reading, writing, listening, speaking and culture learning. They include
various activities, from meaning-based and form-focused to data-driven,
telecollaboration, mobile learning and digital gaming. Research on the field
evaluates the learning outcomes and processes as well as the quality of TMLL.
Distance learning (DL) -including the factors which result in successful
learning, DL features, DL student strategies- and the use of learner-initiated
technology in informal learning environments (i.e. learners’ choices, social
media, what is actually learnt) are issues under current investigation. The
notion of 
langua-technocultural competence” (Sauro and Chapelle, 2017) refers to the
capabilities one should have/develop in order to identify technologies which
will enable him/her to communicate successfully with diverse interlocutors.   

In Chapter 25, Hossein Nassaji and Eva Kartchava look at “Content-based L2
teaching” (CBLT). CBLT models are classified on the basis of whether they are
language or context-driven and whether they are applied to L2/foreign language
or minority/majority language environments. The origins of CBLT are explored
(immersion programmes in Canada, the former Soviet Union, Europe and
submersion and Sheltered Content Instruction). The advantages (i.e. student
motivation, communicative fluency, receptive skills) and disadvantages (e.g.
productive skills, mastering grammatical features) of CBLT are explored, prior
to referring to studies about focus on form in CBLT (form-focused instruction,
textual enhancement, structure-based communicative tasks, functional grammar
effects, student/teacher interaction, feedback). The chapter concludes with
remarks about future developments.          

In Chapter 26, Graham Crookes explores “Conceptions of L2 learning in critical
language pedagogy” by referring to fundamental concepts in critical social
science theory and critical psychology. He shows how critical language
pedagogy (CLP) has been developed in English as a foreign/second language over
the years. He presents current views about CLP as far as second language and
second language learning are concerned and explains how CLP differs from other
approaches. Directions for future research are also offered. 

Part VI: Content and Environment 

Christine Hélot and Ofelia García examine “Bilingual education and policy” in
Chapter 27. They first present the ways in which bilingual education (BE) may
be seen --depending on different ideologies and policies-- and identify BE
language categories (i.e. dominant, immigrant, indigenous, sign), BE type
learners and BE models (e.g. transitional, developmental, immersion, content
and language integrated learning, strong/weak forms of BE,
additive/subtractive bilingualism). Different programmes exist and different
language practices are applied. Dominant languages, though, receive greater
attention, something that affects minoritised speaker communities. Toward this
end, translanguaging is explored.  

In Chapter 28, “Heritage language instruction”, Kim Potowski and Sarah J. Shin
define heritage languages (HL) and heritage speakers. They also discuss the
linguistic diversity of HL across the world and explain why their promotion is
important; national language capacity increase, language competent society,
employees’ effective communication in international work environments,
language teaching methods/material improvement. The linguistic, cultural and
academic differences between HL learners and second/foreign language learners
are explored. Finally, they discuss where HL learners may learn their
languages (elementary/secondary schools, universities, community-based
schools) in Europe and the United States and they refer to the resources for
(HL) instructors.    

“Minority languages at home and abroad: Education and acculturation” are
explored by Aline Ferreira, Viola G. Miglio, and John W. Schwieter in Chapter
29. They describe the linguistic situation of minority languages (ML) in the
U.S., mainly in California, Canada (e.g. Spanish and Chinese HL speakers
abroad) and Spain (Basque, Catalan, Calician as ML in the country). A
language’s prestige is mostly affected by socio-economic and historic factors.
Acculturation is a key factor for the maintenance of HL. Linguistic language
policies (i.e. a language’s legal protection, public use, use in education),
speakers’ attitudes and beliefs further contribute to language normalisation. 
    

In Chapter 30, Jane Jackson and John W. Schwieter explore “Study abroad and
immersion”. They first refer to the different terminology used in the US and
in Europe and sketch the historical development of study abroad programmes
(SAP). A programme’s characteristics (i.e. duration, student/faculty
international exchanges, instructor-led, housing arrangements, technology use
for communication purposes), environmental factors (e.g. inequality,
newcomers’ status, host receptivity, social capital) and individual
differences (social agency, aspirations, expectations, cognitive and
processing effects, language and intercultural attitudes, motivation,
investment, self-efficacy, self-confidence, communication willingness,
language and intercultural anxiety) all affect the quality of intercultural
learning outcomes. Consequently, research should investigate all phases of a
SAP: pre-sojourn, sojourn, post-sojourn.         

In Chapter 31, “Teacher education: Past, present, and future”, Peter Swanson
offers a historical overview of teacher education in the U.S. and sketches the
development, benefits and criticisms of high-quality teacher preparation.
Teacher attributes, effectiveness, knowledge and outcomes have shaped
educational reform. The exceptional Finnish teacher education system is also
discussed. The chapter concludes with thoughts about the future of teacher
education in the U.S.  

Part VII: Moving Forward 

Susan M. Gass explores “Future directions in language learning and teaching”
in Chapter 32. She offers a historical overview of LL and teaching which aims
to highlight the relationship between the two. It also shows how SLA has been
developed as a field and finally how this gap between teaching and learning is
now almost merged. Research emphasis has been placed on formal approaches to
SLA, psycholinguistic, sociocultural and interactionist, on the individual
differences and methodology. Instructed SLA, which connects SLA to language
pedagogy, is currently put forward.     

EVALUATION

The volume approaches SLA from various perspectives; from theoretical and
pedagogical approaches and methodological treatments to skills development,
individual differences as well as context and environmental factors which
affect and contribute to LL. Each chapter familiarises readers with the key
concepts, offers literature overviews and relevant research findings and
highlights topics for future research. In each case, implications for teaching
are highlighted. The research studies referenced provide useful pedagogical
insights and, consequently, links SLA to teaching. The volume is useful source
of reference to second language researchers, educators and (postgraduate)
students. Typo: p. 283, section 12.1, “section 12.3 examines…” should read as
“Section 12.3 examines”. 

REFERENCES

Cronback, L. and Snow, R. (1977). Aptitudes and instructional methods: A
handbook for research on interactions. New York: Irvington.

Darvin, R. and Norton, B. (2015). “Identity and a model of investment in
applied linguistics”. Annual review of applied linguistics, 35: 36-56. 

Gilmore, A. (2011). “Getting real in the language classroom: Developing
Japanese students’ communicative competence with authentic materials”.
Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. Nottingham University.   

Long, M. H. (1996). “The role of the linguistic environment in second language
acquisition”. In W. Richie and T. K. Bhatia (Eds.), Handbook of second
language acquisition. New York: Academic Press. pp. 413-468.  

Lyster, R. and Ranta, L. (1997). “Corrective feedback and learner uptake:
Negotiation of form in communicative classrooms”. Studies in second language
acquisition 19: 37-66. 

Sauro, S. and Chapelle, C. A. (2017). “Toward langa-technocultural
competence”. In C. A. Chapelle and S. Sauro (Eds.), The handbook of technology
and second language teaching and learning. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp.
184-201.


ABOUT THE REVIEWER

Alexandra Galani is a Senior Teaching Fellow in the Department of Primary
Education at the University of Ioannina (Greece). Her main research interests
are in morphology, its interfaces and language acquisition.





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