33.1498, Review: Syntax: Carnie (2021)

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Subject: 33.1498, Review: Syntax: Carnie (2021)

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Date: Wed, 27 Apr 2022 09:56:19
From: Hassan Makhad [hmakhad at hotmail.com]
Subject: Syntax: A Generative Introduction, 4th Edition

 
Discuss this message:
http://linguistlist.org/pubs/reviews/get-review.cfm?subid=36737617


Book announced at http://linguistlist.org/issues/32/32-2132.html

AUTHOR: Andrew  Carnie
TITLE: Syntax: A Generative Introduction, 4th Edition
SERIES TITLE: Introducing Linguistics
PUBLISHER: Wiley
YEAR: 2021

REVIEWER: Hassan Makhad, Cadi Ayyad University

SUMMARY 

This 2021 volume, the 4th edition of Andrew Carnie's “Syntax: A Generative
Introduction”, is an introductory textbook. It addresses the central topics
that a syntax course needs to include, both at the undergraduate and graduate
levels. Its general structure consists of four distinct parts. Each part is
composed of separate chapters.  Every chapter begins by specifying the
intended instructional goals. Chapters are supplemented with units to enrich
thought-provoking issues. Every chapter is complemented by a summary of the
concepts introduced in the text. Subsequently, two practice sections follow at
the end. The first one provides application of the studied material and the
second is intended to encourage criticism and extension of learned
information. The book ends with references and an index. Also available is an
accompanying workbook.

Part one, Preliminaries, contains five chapters. The first, Generative
Grammar, emphasizes the assumptions behind the generative approach. It
specifies that Grammar is part of the cognitive system of humans. Thus, Syntax
uses the scientific method in its investigation of linguistic data. The
approach involves examination of facts to make generalizations. These patterns
develop into a hypothesis. The latter is verified against further data to make
necessary adjustments. The process of data solicitation relies on the
experience of native speakers to help understand the implicit linguistic
knowledge of humans. The chapter addresses issues of competence versus
performance and the innateness hypothesis, and also presents typological
arguments in favor of the existence of Universal Grammar (UG).

The second chapter, Parts of Speech, examines speech parts and rejects the
traditional semantic basis for distinguishing among words. It shows that there
are two general types of word entries: lexical and functional. The latter are
a closed class while the former are an open class, allowing new items to join
the list. The chapter demonstrates that differences between lexical items
heavily depend on their morphology and syntactic distribution in sentences.
Likewise, it establishes that words have idiosyncratic properties and
subcategorization frames.  

The third chapter, Constituency, Trees, and Rules, tackles the issue of how
words are arranged in linear strings, the way they form word groupings, and
the means by which they are hierarchically organized. It introduces Phrase
Structure Rules (PSRs) that generate constituents in tree diagrams. It brings
constituency tests into use to show how sentences are structured. It also
addresses issues of structural ambiguities and cross-linguistic variation. The
author demonstrates that the apparent variation in different languages is
misleading. PSRs generate an initial (or underlying) word order and
transformational rules result in the various surface word arrangements in
different  languages. 

The fourth chapter, Structural Relations, deals with the formal properties of
tree diagrams. It discusses parts of tree structures. It starts by enumerating
the standard terminology  associated with syntactic trees, together with
constraints on branching arrangements (e.g. single-motherhood and no
tangling). It also addresses structural relations such as dominance,
precedence, and c-command. In doing so, the chapter introduces the notion of
government and tree-theoretic relations holding between constituents.

The fifth chapter, Binding Theory, starts by distinguishing different nominal
forms and defines the notions of anaphoricity, co-indexation, and antecedency.
It demonstrates that noun distributions are regulated by the binding
principles, which impose specific structural relations of locality constraints
and government.  

Part Two, The Base, is composed of four chapters. The sixth chapter introduces
X-bar Theory, which is proposed as a more articulated model of phrase
structure. It argues that trees consist of three vertical platforms: heads,
intermediate/bar level categories, and maximal projections. Phrases are
constrained by the endocentricity condition, which requires them to have
heads. The intermediate levels are justified by the use of constituency tests.
Maximal projections are extensions of heads. X-bar Theory is proven to give a
better account of the distinction between complements and adjuncts. It
generalizes over lexical (and, in the next chapter, also functional)
categories: one structure fits all word classes. Furthermore, it is
demonstrated to capture cross-linguistic variations on the basis of
parameterizations.  
The seventh chapter is an extension of the sixth. It broadens the X-bar
schemata to include functional categories. It starts by reviewing the
traditional NP, whose specifier was simply a head rather than a maximal
projection. This property violates the proposed specifier rule given on p.
200. On the basis of X-bar theory, an NP is actually a Determiner Phrase where
the head D takes NP as its complement. Under this proposal determiners are no
longer inside NPs. The approach extends to clauses. A sentence is a Tense
Phrase (TP). The head of the latter (T) takes a predicate (VP) as its
complement. Modals are argued to occupy T, as they are in complementary
distribution with tensed verbs and auxiliaries. Likewise, clauses with
complementizers are Complementizer Phrases (CPs). In such a configuration C
takes TP as its complement. Similarly, the chapter treats other functional
categories such as Aspect, Negation, and Voice. The English perfective and the
progressive aspects are shown to head distinct projections.

The eighth chapter, Constraining X-bar: Theta Theory, aims at restricting the
power of X-bar Theory to only generate grammatical sentences. Since objects
are optional, it is possible to derive a transitive verb without an object.
The system can also generate a complement for an intransitive verb. To control
the derivation of unacceptable sentences, Theta Theory is introduced. It
regulates selectional restrictions on arguments through thematic relations,
with argument structures of predicates regulated by theta grids. The Theta
Criterion ensures strict equivalence between the number of arguments and the
theta roles present in theta grids. This matching prevents the output of the
X-bar phrase structure rules from generating ill-formed structures.
Furthermore, Theta Theory tackles the conceptual design of language, which
consists of a lexicon and a computational component. The former sustains the
latter in terms of the Projection Principle. The last section of the chapter
addresses the issue of expletives, which present a challenge to Theta Theory.
On the basis of the Extended Projection Principle (EPP), absence of a thematic
subject enforces expletive insertion (at least, in English). The operation is
ordered so as to apply posterior to the Theta Criterion to avoid mismatches in
the computational system.   
   
The ninth chapter, Theta Grids and Functional Categories, is a further
extension of the previous chapter. To preclude X-bar from generating
unattested structures, the theta grid analysis is employed. It shows that
different verbs choose distinct CPs, e.g., some  require a finite complement
clause. This information is encoded in theta grids in terms of feature
specifications. Likewise, different complementizers select for [±Infinitive]
TPs. For instance, ‘that’ is always followed by a finite / tensed clause.
Similarly, determiners have theta grids that impose restrictions on their
complements. The English indefinite article ‘a’ is only compatible with
[-Plural, -Proper, -Pronoun]. The proposal is extended to account for modals,
auxiliaries, and voice. Modals occupy tense and select for a bare verbal form
[+V, form bare]. A past tense T selects for a predicate with [+V, form
preterite]. Ultimately, the use of the theta grid analysis provides a
satisfactory explanation of the order of functional categories in clauses.  

Part Three, Movement, comprises four chapters. The tenth chapter addresses the
issue of head movement. It starts by fleshing out the computational component.
The lexicon and X-bar rules generate D-structures. The latter are constrained
by the Theta Criterion. In this regard, the underlying position of the verb in
a simple French or English sentence is the same. In French the verb moves from
within VP to T; whereas in English it remains in VP. This proposal also
explains word order differences between SVO and VSO languages. Both of them
start as SVO under the VP-Internal Subject Hypothesis, and the VSO order is
derived by V movement to tense. Another instance of head movement is tense
raising to C in subject verb inversion constructions. The derived surface
structure results from T-to-C movement. 

The eleventh chapter, DP movement, demonstrates that maximal projections can
also undergo displacement transformations. DP movement is motivated by the
interplay of two requirements: EPP and Case. The first seems superficial. It
cannot explain why expletive insertion does not prevent themes from raising 
to subject positions in passives. Therefore the genuine driving force behind
nominal movements is Case. The idea is that DPs are generated in theta
positions and forced to move to receive Case. This reasoning provides an
adequate explanation for raising structures, passives, and unaccusative
constructions. In these instances, DPs move from a caseless theta location to
a case position. The case assignment process is regulated by the Case Filter,
guaranteeing that all overt DPs have Case.

The twelfth chapter addresses issues of Wh-movement and Locality Constraints.
Since thematic roles and Case are assigned locally, Wh-elements undergo
movement to spec CP. Support for this claim comes from the fact that
wh-elements precede auxiliaries, which can be heads in C. Another argument
that confirms movement to spec CP comes from Irish and Bavarian German, which
allow overt complementizers to co-occur with wh-elements (pp.: 368-369). The
process of Wh-movement is motivated by a [+wh] feature in C. It is constrained
by the Minimal Link Condition (MLC) requiring raising to the closest landing C
endowed with a [+wh] feature. This sense clarifies locality constraints on
movements. Displacement is not allowed to skip possible intervening landing
sites. Carnie also states that the MLC blocks movement of multiple
wh-elements.

The thirteenth chapter, A Unified Theory of Movement, tries to fuse the
different kinds of movement transformations. The driving force behind the
operations is locality constraints. So move(ment) applies to bring elements
closer to others carrying analogous features. Since feature checking is
involved in Move, the process is constrained by the Principle of Full
Interpretation (PFI). Given that displacement can either be overt or covert
cross-linguistically, the conceptual architecture of the grammar is altered,
as on page 401. The system encompasses Logical Form (LF) and Phonetic Form
(PF) to assess the well-formedness of derived structures. 

Part Four, Advanced Topics, consists of six chapters and tackles controversial
issues in syntactic theory. The fourteenth chapter examines ditransitivity. It
claims that when a verb has two DP complements, the indirect object
asymmetrically c-commands the direct object. The author proposes an AgrOP
mediating VP and VoiceP. Objects raise to spec AgrOP to receive accusative
case. In this regard, passives do not assign accusative case because the head
‘be’ of VoiceP does not select AgrOP. That is why their theme objects must
receive nominative case by moving to Spec TP.

The fifteenth chapter explores Raising, Control, and Empty Categories. Raising
involves movement of a DP for case reasons. There are two kinds of Raising:
subject to subject and subject to object. The first involves subject movement
from the embedded clause to spec TP in the main clause. The second requires
raising of the embedded subject to the position an object of the main
predicate would move to for case, i.e. Spec AgrOP. A control structure does
not entail DP movement. It involves the presence of a “PRO” element in the
subject position of the lower clause. PRO is proposed to avoid violation of
theta theory. There are two types of control: subject control and object
control. In the first instance, the subject of the main clause is
co-referential with PRO. In the second PRO co-refers with the main clause
object. These are both instances of controlled PRO. Control can also be
arbitrary. Another empty element discussed in the chapter is “pro”. The latter
appears in the subject position of pro-drop languages. Unlike PRO, pro appears
in a case position.

The sixteenth chapter, Ellipsis, examines elision in syntax. A well-known case
is VP ellipsis, where the second VP is deleted under identity in coordinated
clauses. Another type is antecedent-contained deletion, which involves the
missed phrase being contained in its VP antecedent. A third type is
pseudo-gapping, where omission leaves stranded material to survive in the
derivation. The final type discussed in the chapter is sluicing, which implies
the deletion of a TP. There are two requirements on ellipsis. First, the
antecedent and omitted structure have to be equivalent. Second, the deleted
set should be the complement of a licensing category. To receive its
interpretation, if the elided material is missing from the start, then the
content of its antecedent is copied at LF. Alternatively, if ellipsis takes
part in (the mapping to) PF, no LF-copying is needed.  

The seventeenth chapter, Advanced Topics in Binding Theory, proposes a
reconsideration of the simplified generalizations introduced in the fifth
chapter. On the basis of empirical facts and the copy theory of movement,
binding applies in LF. The chapter introduces the notion of a potential
antecedent for anaphors and pronouns. These reflections impose adjustments on
the binding principles, especially the binding domains CP and DP. 

The eighteenth chapter, Polysynthesis, Incorporation, and
Non-configurationality, addresses some intricate issues of cross-linguistic
variation. The first challenge comes from polysynthetic languages, in which a
single multimorphemic word can stand for an entire sentence. There are two
proposals in the literature to deal with this phenomenon. The first claims
that such languages have morphology and lack syntax. The other advocates the
idea that syntax interplays with morphology and that verbal arguments match up
with corresponding morphemes on the verb. The second challenge comes from
incorporation, where the internal argument is amalgamated with the verb. This
challenge is overcome by analyzing incorporation in terms of head movement,
where the noun incorporates into its c-commanding verb. The third irregularity
is free word order. This freedom may involve scrambling, which can raise DPs
to the left periphery. Items that appear to be scrambled may also be merely
adjuncts, rather than real arguments, and can thus tolerate greater freedom of
appearance and arrangement.  Furthermore, word order may be susceptible to
discourse, which can be a decisive factor in determining the formula of order
configurations.

The nineteenth chapter, new to this edition, introduces minimalism’s Merge
theory. It intriguingly intends to combine phrase structure and movement into
a single procedure, by virtue of building the tree from the bottom up. Merge
consists of two types: external and internal. External merge joins two
separate forms and produces a combined unit. The proposal also eliminates
traditional category labeling, a move which results in the elimination of bar
levels. Internal merge substitutes for movement operations. It aspires to
minimize displacement rules to the operations of Copy and (Re)merge. It
operates on already formed structures and remerges constituents
derivationally. This approach is beneficial as it explains cross-linguistic
variation with regards to which copy of the chain is pronounced at PF, without
the overt / covert distinctions of traditional move.

EVALUATION

My immediate reaction to the content and goals of the book is affirmative. The
textbook provides a comprehensive introduction to generative syntax. Although
it is claimed to be about Principles and Parameters theory, it covers previous
fundamental issues and comprises various aspects in the Minimalist Program. It
unequivocally encompasses the concepts of Generativism, as a theory. It
clearly describes the basic concepts, while it gradually guides readers in
exploring the intricacies of syntactic structures. For instance, it offers
guiding directives in a step-by-step fashion on how to draw tree diagrams. The
style is outstandingly simple and clear, rendering the text easy to read.
These qualities encourage readers to become receptive to the content and
comfortable with the analysis and suggestions. 

One essential characteristic of the work is the manner in which it presents
the subject matter. The author has succeeded in his instructive presentation
of the material. Each chapter is introduced by learning objectives. This
goal-setting technique helps in focusing on the content areas and enhances
comprehension. The method pushes readers to reflect on their potential and
encourages them to follow the learning process. Furthermore, setting goals
gives students realistic expectations and helps them to assess whether or not
they have met the objectives. 

Furthermore, the book moves from one theme to the next in a meaningful way. 
Each chapter articulates one focal idea which correlates directly with the
information introduced in the following passage. This unification of topics
catches the attention of readers, as it guides them while moving from one
thought to the next. This helps readers to understand and follow the
progression of ideas and to develop syntactic argumentation. Moreover, putting
a terminology section at the end of each chapter smoothly connects learners
with the introduced vocabulary and concepts. In addition, it provides a useful
selection of exercises based on data from a variety of languages. These
activities supply practice of the studied facts, which definitely improves
learning skills and facilitates analytical effectiveness. By doing so, the
book provides a solid foundation for beginners in syntactic theory.

One noticeable quality that sets the work apart from other textbooks is its
implicit tracing of the evolution of generative theory. The development is
perceived in terms of new proposals and analyses that aim at strengthening the
theory. For example, the movement from traditional PSRs to X-bar is a change
in theoretical assumptions to account for additional data. The author
undeniably implies that the assumptions simply undergo systematic evolution to
enrich the model and expand its usefulness. This historical dimension and
chronology of theory improvement facilitates understanding the changes the
system underwent.

Overall, the book is instructive and valuable, but contains some typographical
and other errors, largely resulting from  poor proofreading and the author’s
failure to make consistent changes in going from the 3rd to the 4th edition.
Here are some I caught. On page 4, line 5-6, “too” should be “tool.”  On page
5, footnote 1, line 10, “rather just” must be “rather than just”. On page 8,
paragraph 2, line 2, “about primarily about” must be “primarily about”.  On
page 26, paragraph 2, line 2, “withmore” should be “with more”. On page 90,
example 66, “The princess” is referred to as “the man” in line 3 below the
example. The same mistake appears in line 1 under example 68. Merlan (1976) is
mentioned on page 94, but is not in the references. On page 117, line 15,
“tree in (14)” should be “(15)”. On page 126, “Gabby” is referred to as “Fred”
in line 2 below example (54c). On page 228, paragraph 2, line 1, (25) should
be (53). On page 232, paragraph 1, line 3, replace “possess” by “process”. On
page 234, example (52) should be (65). In the last line on page 283, change
(78) by (56) because on page 284, example (55) should be (56). On page 284,
starting from section 4, all numbers should be renumbered (+1). On page 311,
paragraph 2, line 5, change “the VP” to “the VoiceP”. “arrive” on page 349,
line 3 after example 48, should be in italics. On page 372, “Jim” should be
“Nura” in example (22); similarly on page 374, “Jim” should be “Nura” in
paragraph 3, line 4. On page 415, line 2-3 after example (6), change “a
element ” to “an element that”. On page 416, example (8), the sentence in the
text is “Ryan cleaned the window” but the tree shows “Andrea cleaned the
window”. Also on page 416, in the last two lines, “Voice in for” should be
“Voice for”. Moreover, if X is replaced with Voice in (5), you don’t get (9).
X is dominated by VP in (5), while VoiceP dominates VP in (9). On page 417,
line 1 after (9), “Josh” should be “Morag”. On page 422, paragraph 3, line 4,
“little v” should be “Voice” and on page 435, paragraph 1, line 3, Carnie
mentions “small vP” but intends “VoiceP”. The header on page 431 (and beyond)
should read “Chapter 15” (not 16). On page 436, line 6 after example (23),
“VP” should be “VoiceP”. “is gets” on page 441, line 1 after (41), should just
be “gets”. On page 474, paragraph 4, line 8, “c-commands the antecedent”
should read “c-commands the anaphor”. Baker (2002) is mentioned on page 485,
paragraph 2, line 3, but it should be Baker (2001b), as in the references.
Jelinek is mentioned on page 492, paragraph 3, line 8, without a publication
date. On page 500, paragraph 2, line 1 “have be entirely” should read “have to
be entirely”. Speas (1992) is mentioned on page 503, paragraph 2, line 2, but
should be 1990, as in the references. On page 503, paragraph 2, line 2 after
example (6), “the” and “eat” should be in italics. Finally, “go away” should
be “goes away” on page 505, paragraph 1, last line after example (9).


ABOUT THE REVIEWER

Hassan MAKHAD is a Professor at Cadi Ayyad University, the Poly-disciplinary
Faculty of Safi. His main interests are Syntax and morpho-syntax of Tashelhiyt
Berber, Moroccan Arabic and Literary Arabic.





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