33.2008, Review: Applied Linguistics; Language Acquisition: Baker, Wright (2021)

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Subject: 33.2008, Review: Applied Linguistics; Language Acquisition: Baker, Wright (2021)

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Date: Wed, 15 Jun 2022 23:06:54
From: Andrew Jocuns [jocunsa at gmail.com]
Subject: Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism

 
Discuss this message:
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Book announced at http://linguistlist.org/issues/32/32-860.html

AUTHOR: Colin  Baker
AUTHOR: Wayne E. Wright
TITLE: Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism
SUBTITLE: 7th Edition
SERIES TITLE: Bilingual Education & Bilingualism
PUBLISHER: Multilingual Matters
YEAR: 2021

REVIEWER: Andrew Jocuns, Assumption University

SUMMARY

The seventh edition of Baker and Wright’s thorough exploration of bilingualism
provides up-to-date depictions of current topics related to bilingualism
including translanguaging (Garcia & Wei, 2014) and raciolinguistics (Alim et
al., 2016; García et al., 2021) as well as recent voter initiatives in some US
states where these effect multilingual and bilingual education. Each of the
nineteen chapters contain sections helpful for teaching, including: key points
of the chapter, suggested further reading, external links on the web,
discussion questions, and study activities. The main text is followed by a
twelve-page glossary of key terms in bilingualism.

Chapter 1 Bilingualism and Multilingualism: Definitions and Distinctions lays
the groundwork in terms of general concepts and definitions for the eighteen
chapters that follow. Such topics include distinctions between bilingualism
and multilingualism. Two perspectives on bilingualism are discussed: one which
is effectively dual monolingualism, and the other which is more holistic
focusing on the notion that bilinguals take advantage of their entire
linguistic repertoires while communicating (e.g., translanguaging). The
concept of raciolinguistics is introduced, challenging the monolingual view of
bilingualism where ideologies of race and power emerge around language. An
important discussion on communicative competence is also introduced noting
differences between: discourse, grammatical, sociocultural/pragmatic,
strategic, and metalinguistic competence.

Chapter 2 “The Measurement of Bilingualism” discusses the problem of assessing
bilingual competence. The authors note that the notion of assessment,
particularly among bilinguals, is ambiguous and such ambiguity raises issues
of validity and reliability. Different types of assessments are covered from
balanced scales to communicative language testing and criterion referenced
language tests. Baker and Wright conclude the chapter with a discussion on
language censuses, which include the US Decennial Census and American
Community Survey, both of which include questions on language. 

Chapter 3 Languages in Society covers some seminal topics in
macrosociolinguistics ranging from diglossia and transglossia, to language
maintenance, language shift, language death and others. An important
distinction raised in this chapter is the distinction among different types of
bilingualism (additive, elective, recursive, subtractive) which illustrates
how bilingualism is a complex series of processes, not a single static
linguistic variable. Other topics include language and nationalism, social
varieties of language, English as a global language, and critical
post-structural sociolinguistics.

In Chapter 4 the authors offer a discussion of Language Endangerment and
Revitalization. Figure 4.1 (p. 74) visualizes the dramatic decline of
languages since 1500 BCE, from approximately 15,000 to under 2000. One of the
key points of this chapter is the importance of maintaining languages and what
is lost among humans when a language dies. Such things as bio and cultural
diversity and identity-enabling practices are just a few of what disappears
when languages die (Nettle & Romaine, 2002). One important feature of language
revitalization is the role of the family in enabling a language to be
maintained. 

The Early Development of Bilingualism is the focus of Chapter 5. Several key
terms related to childhood bilingualism are introduced, e.g., simultaneous
bilingualism referring to a child’s being socialized in more than one
language, and also to the notion that the languages being introduced are used
differently, as “very few families maintain an equal balance between the two
languages” (p. 98). The “one parent one language” approach is probably touted
as the best and most well-known strategy for bilingualism, but the authors
point out that the success of OPOL is highly relative. The chapter also
contains an excellent and thorough discussion of differences between
codeswitching and translanguaging (p. 107-114).

Chapter 6 focuses upon The Later Development of Bilingualism after a child or
adult has already developed L1 acquisition, also referred to as sequential
acquisition. This chapter also discusses the field of second language
acquisition in relation to bilingualism, noting reasons why people study a
second language and also discussing heritage language learning. A section on
the age factor draws attention to issues related to the critical period
hypothesis, and page 128 lists some notable findings on learner differences.
While there is no critical language period, there are some more advantageous
ones. 

Chapter 7 Bilingualism, Cognition, and the Brain was updated by Becky H. Huang
and focuses upon relationships between intelligence and bilingualism, noting
periods of research which suggested bilingualism was detrimental, neutral, and
more recently additive. Bilingualism does not interfere with thinking, and the
advantages of bilingualism are focused on certain types of thinking:
creativity, divergent thinking, metalinguistic awareness, and communicative
sensitivity. Bilingualism also hinders the negative effects of aging as well
as the development of neurological impairments such as dementia and
Alzheimer’s among aging adults. 

Chapter 8 discusses “Theories of Bilingualism and the Curriculum”. The chapter
discusses early theories which tended to focus on the acquisition of academic
language, which have been more recently known to oversimplify the overarching
nature of bilingualism and language learning. Also the notion of academic
language has been criticized and some notable alternatives are discussed
(Flores, 2020). The chapter concludes with a discussion of recent trends in
translanguaging as well as research which has found that students are capable
of drawing on different aspects of their idiolects to complete tasks and that
they are familiar with different registers (Bunch, 2014).

Chapter 9 “Historical Introduction to Bilingual Education in the United
States” points out that the USA  has tended to prefer models of assimilation
towards the dominant language, American English. The chapter is divided into
historical timescales including a section on lawsuits which established
precedent around the equal opportunity for education among minority language
learners (see table 9.1 pp. 198-199. The chapter offers insight into key
rulings as well as voter initiatives (English only movements; English for
Children in Arizona, California, and Massachusetts) that effect immigrant
minority language communities. The authors also discuss voter initiatives
which recently overturned such laws in Massachusetts and California. The Seal
of Biliteracy is also discussed which is a developing trend in US states
recognizing the bilingual skills and proficiency of students.

Chapter 10 Different Types of Education for Bilingual Students. An overall
typology and classification of such programs can be found in table 10.1 (p.
210) this typology ranges from monolingual mainstream submersion programs to
stronger forms of bilingualism such as mainstream bilingual. The former type
focuses on submersion and assimilation to the dominant language and culture,
whereas the latter focuses on a stronger sense of bilingualism.

Chapter 11 Education for Bilingualism and Biliteracy provides a discussion of
stronger forms of bilingual education, such as dual language programs as well
as heritage language and immersive bilingual education. Immersion bilingual
education affords language majority students opportunities to learn through a
second language. One way this is accomplished is through content and language
integrated learning (CLIL) where another language is used for the teaching and
learning of content (e.g., Mathematics) and language (French).

Chapter 12 The Effectiveness of Bilingual Education explores how effective are
such models and are there any differences in terms of types of learner. One
interesting note is that research suggests a relationship between experience
of bilingual education and student retention, where bilingual education
students are more likely to be retained. The chapter then explores research on
effectiveness of bilingual education in the United States, one trend in more
recent research seems to suggest that there are more positive outcomes for
bilingual education than the highly political English-only programs in the
USA, which seek assimilation culturally and linguistically. The research on
effectiveness seems to support strong forms of bilingual education. 

“Effective Schools and Classrooms for Bilingual Students” is the topic of
Chapter 13. Some of the topics include: multiculturalism, antiracism,
identity, as well as classroom practices to facilitate bilingualism. The
chapter also includes further detailed discussion of both codeswitching in the
classroom and the advantages of using translanguaging. An interesting point
the authors raise here has to do with the fact that while teachers may favor
translanguaging, students may favor another language either because of
prestige, personal preference, or knowledge/skill level. 

Chapter 14 Literacy, Biliteracy and Multiliteracies for Bilingual and
Multilingual Students focuses upon different issues of literacy. Different
types of bilingual education entail different concepts of literacy; these
approaches include: the skills approach, the construction of meaning approach,
the sociocultural literacy approach, and the critical literacy approach. A
thorough discussion of both biliteracy theories and pedagogies, as well as
more recent trends in multiliteracies, is presented.

Chapter 15 Support and Assessment of Special Needs and Exceptional Bilingual
Students draws our attention to an important distinction in bilingual
education, gifted, special needs, and talented students. One of the issues
with bilingual education, at least as it emerged in the United States, is how
students who were not proficient in the language of instruction, i.e.,
English, were often labeled special needs. Here the authors raise a few issues
regarding language pathologies, for example language delay, which can manifest
for several reasons, but has frequently been correlated with bilingualism. 

Chapter 16 “Deaf-Signing People, Bilingualism/Multilingualism and Bilingual
Education” discusses the needs of deaf-signing people and deaf culture in
terms of bilingual education noting that sign bilingualism has not always been
recognized as a form of bilingualism. Deaf-signing individuals have a language
and culture of their own and share some characteristics with bilingual hearing
individuals. An educational framework that is focused on deaf-signing
bilinguals including translanguaging strategies can scaffold student
development.

Chapter 17 “Bilingualism and Bilingual Education as a Problem, Right and
Resource”: this chapter focuses on three ideologies that are pervasive in not
only by bilingualism but languages in general. Language as a problem includes
notions of issues that have been attributed to languages and bilingualism,
such as problems in cognition and social problems. Language as a right is an
ideological orientation that focuses upon language being a basic human right.
Language as a resource as an ideology that includes several tropes, the most
obvious of which is how languages can be marketable.

Chapter 18 “Bilingualism and Bilingual Education: Ideology, Identity and
Empowerment” notes different pervasive ideologies around bilingualism. Most
notably ideologies of assimilation and pluralism have had the most profound
effects on bilingualism, though there are alternatives. The chapter also
discusses identity and empowerment noting that identities are not fixed,
static entities but are hybrid and adaptable with regards to language.
Empowerment draws heavily on Cummins’ (2013) discussion of coercive and
collaborative relations of power.

Chapter 19 “Bilingualism in the Modern World” presents some of the spaces in
which bilingualism is used in the contemporary world. A section on
bilingualism and occupation notes how some labor markets draw heavily on
language as a resource. Bilingualism and tourism discusses the role that
bilingualism plays in the global tourist industry. Sections on bilingualism
and mass media and internet technology show the role of languages in mass
media and new media technologies. This is followed by discussion on
bilingualism and economy noting that bilingualism cannot be equated with
outright economic success as there are several factors which can influence
this. Larger forces of neoliberalism and political economy(ies) must be
considered as they code for bilingualism differently.

EVALUATION

Baker and Wright’s 7th edition of this seminal work in bilingualism is a must
read and must use for any researcher considering bilingualism or bilingual
education as research objects. The book contains well argued, well informed,
and well researched topics that bilingual researchers have at their disposal
in one coherent volume. The audience for this book would certainly be
established researchers wishing to engage bilingualism as an object of inquiry
as well as graduate students and some undergraduates as well. I for one will
be using a few of the chapters in my courses in second language acquisition,
contemporary issues in applied linguistics, and introduction to English
language studies. One mild criticism of this work is that it focuses a lot of
attention on bilingual policy and bilingual education in the United States.
The issue here is that the USA is notoriously monocultural and monolingual
ideologically. While it is certainly nice as an American to have this
information in such a detailed manner it would be more beneficial if case
studies from other parts of the world were included in a similarly detailed
manner. 

REFERENCES

Alim, H. S., Rickford, J. R., & Ball, A. F. (Eds.). (2016). Raciolinguistics:
How language shapes our ideas about race. Oxford University Press.

Bunch, G. C. (2014). The Language of Ideas and the Language of Display:
Reconceptualizing “Academic Language” in Linguistically Diverse Classrooms.
International Multilingual Research Journal, 8(1), 70–86.
https://doi.org/10.1080/19313152.2014.852431

Cummins, J. (2013). Empowerment and bilingual education. In C. A. Chapelle
(Ed.), Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics. Blackwell.

Flores, N. (2020). From academic language to language architecture:
Challenging raciolinguistic ideologies in research and practice. Theory Into
Practice, 59(1), 22–31. https://doi.org/10.1080/00405841.2019.1665411

García, O., Flores, N., Seltzer, K., Wei, L., Otheguy, R., & Rosa, J. (2021).
Rejecting abyssal thinking in the language and education of racialized
bilinguals: A manifesto. Critical Inquiry in Language Studies, 1–26.
https://doi.org/10.1080/15427587.2021.1935957

Garcia, O., & Wei, L. (2014). Translanguaging: Language, bilingualism and
education. Palgrave Pivot.

Nettle, D., & Romaine, S. (2002). Vanishing voices: The extinction of the
world’s languages. Oxford University Press.


ABOUT THE REVIEWER

Andrew Jocuns is a sociolinguist (PhD Georgetown 2005) currently working as a
lecturer in the PhD program in ELT at Assumption University, Thailand. His
research has focused upon Southeast Asia (Indonesia, Thailand), informal
learning, multimodal discourse analysis, nexus analysis, linguistic landscapes
and mediated discourse theory. His present research includes: a nexus analysis
of Thai English that explores learning in both informal and incidental
contexts, narrativizing linguistic and geosemiotic landscapes, and family
language policy in Thailand. His research has appeared in Semiotica, Mind
Culture Activity, Journal of Multicultural Discourse, Multimodal
Communication, Linguistics & Education, and Asian Englishes.





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