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<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Dear Nick and Petra,</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"><br>
</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Here is one relevant article:</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"><br>
</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Spolsky, Bernard. (2003). Reassessing Maori regeneration. </span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">Language
in Society</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">, 32, 4, 553-578.</span></span></span></p>
</div>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s6" style="font-weight: bold;"><span class="bumpedFont15">Reassessing </span></span><span class="s6" style="font-weight: bold;"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s6" style="font-weight: bold;"><span class="bumpedFont15"> regeneration</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15" style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);">BERNARD SPOLSKY</span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15" style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);">Bar-Ilan University</span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15" style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);">52900 Ramat-Gan, Israel</span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15" style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><a href="mailto:spolsb@mail.biu.ac.il">spolsb@mail.biu.ac.il</a></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">M</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">â</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">ori</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span class="s7" style="font-variant: small-caps;"><span class="bumpedFont15" style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><br>
</span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span class="s7" style="font-variant: small-caps;"><span class="bumpedFont15" style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);">abstract</span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">After nearly two centuries of contact with Europeans, the</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> language
of New Zealand was, by the 1960s, threatened with exti</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">nction. Accompanying a movement for ethnic revival, a series of grassroots regeneration efforts that established adult, preschool, and autonomous
school immersion programs has over the past two decades increased substantially the number of </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> who know a</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">nd
use their language, but this has not yet led to the reestablishment of natural intergenerational transmission. More recently, responding to growing ethnic pressures, the New Zealand government has adopted a </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> language
policy and is starting to imple</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">ment it. Seen in its widest social, political, and economic context, this process can be understood not as colonial language loss followed by postcolonial reversing language
shift activities, but as the continuation of a long process of negotiation of accommodation between autochthonous </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">M</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">âori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> and
European settlers. (Language policy, language practice, language ideology, language management, New Zealand, Maori, regeneration, revitalization, amalgamation, accommodation)*</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span class="s7" style="font-variant: small-caps;"><span class="bumpedFont15" style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><br>
</span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span class="s7" style="font-variant: small-caps;"><span class="bumpedFont15" style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);">introduction: a language policy framework</span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Scholarly interest in languag</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">e
loss and maintenance (Fishman 1964) has grown into an almost frantic concern over the endangerment of the majority of the world</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">’</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">s 6,000 or so
languages (Hale 1991; Krauss 1991, 1998), a situation that has given special urgency to the study of language policy. The </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">M</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">âori</span></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">1</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> language
in New Zealand has a special place on the list of languages marked by strong efforts at what Fishman 1990, 1991, 2001 has labeled </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">reversing
language shift</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> – efforts by an ethnic group or government to revive or maintain their language. For</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">,
three decades of grassroots-inspired efforts at maintenance or revival, with reluctant recent support from the government, have attempted to make up for the gradual loss of the language over a century of contact with colonizing English.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">In this ar</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">ticle,
I will look at the process, using as a framework for analysis a model of language policy (Spolsky & Shohamy 2000b) that eschews a purely linguacentric approach. I will interpret it not as colonial language destruction followed by postmodern rescue efforts,
but rather as a continuation of a course of action that started two centuries ago, when the autochthonous inhabitants (</span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">tangata whenua) </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">of
New Zealand (</span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">Aotearoa)</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">and the</span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15"> </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">European
settlers began to negotiate an accommodation with each other, politica</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">lly, socially, economically, culturally, and linguistically. The question of success or failure of </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> language
policy in New Zealand, central to this study, cannot be restricted to linguistic issues alone.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">The language policy of a social group</span></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">2</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> may
be</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">located in three interrelated but not necessarily consistent components: language practice, language ideology, and language management. </span></span><span class="s7" style="font-variant: small-caps;"><span class="bumpedFont15">Language
practice</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> comprises all the consensual choices of languages or language forms making up what Hymes 1974 called </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">ethnography
of speaking.</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> In the present case, the relevant language practice is the choice of </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">M</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">âori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> or
English, or some mixture of the two,</span></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">3</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> by various New Zealanders in various situations and for various purposes. </span></span><span class="s7" style="font-variant: small-caps;"><span class="bumpedFont15">Language
ideology</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> includes the beliefs of the members of the various social groups about language and language use (Woolard 1998), inclu</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">ding attitudes</span></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">4</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> to
the languages and to the items</span></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">5</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> that identify the languages and varieties used in the community.</span></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">6</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> The
third component is</span></span><span class="s7" style="font-variant: small-caps;"><span class="bumpedFont15">language management</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">,</span></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">7</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> defined
as any effort by an individual or institution that holds or claims authority to modify the language practice or language ideology of other people. Language management decisions are policies, and they may be expressed in laws or regulations, and may be implemented
or not.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Language policies may focus on different linguistic
levels. It is lan</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">guage management when an individual teacher attempts to prevent a child from mixing </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">words
into English speech, just as much as when the</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> Language Commissioner sets a goal to have 40% of New Zealanders speak </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">.
The interrelationship of manage</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">ment with practice and ideology is the most problematic issue in language policy. How effective can management be in changing practice or ideology? Can language management
compete with nonlinguistic social and political and economic forces? Indeed, can language (any more than, say, economics) be managed at all? One question I address here will be: What effect, if any, has recent language management had on </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">M</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">âori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> language
practices and ideology?</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Language policy is not a closed system but rather
one aspect of the practices, behaviors, ideologies, and policies of a social group. </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Bourdieu stressed</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> the wider context: </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Those
who seek to defend a threatened language</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> ... are obliged to wage a total struggle. One cannot save the value of competence unless one saves the market, in other words the whole set of political and
social conditions of production of the producers/consumers</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> (1991:57). In the most obvious cases, changes in demography (such as the arrival
of large numbers of immigrants or the emigration of a section of the community) or political independence (such as the major changes that followed the granting of autonomy to former colonial territories in the 196</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">0s
or to the countries of the former Soviet Union in the 1980s) can be assumed to lead to changes in language practice, ideology, and management.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">To be able to ask about the success or failure of</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> language
revival, we need to attempt to desynonymize </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">a number of terms often used interchangeably. The most common of these is </span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">revive</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">,
used to refer to any restoration of earlier vigor in a language. It carries with it an implication that before revival the language was </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">dead,</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> but
in most cases, this turns out not to be true. In the case of the revival of Irish and </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">M</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">âori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">,
for instance, there were still native speakers alive when the revival movement started; in the case of Hebrew, while there were no native speakers, there had been active second-language learning and literary use during the centuries that the language</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> was
not spoken (Spolsky & Shohamy 2000a). The current </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Language Commissioner (Hohepa 2000) uses the term</span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">regeneration</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">,
which seems to be a useful way to refer to the increase of salience and status that comes when a language becomes a focus for ethni</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">c mobilization.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Fishman 1991, 2001 has coined the phrase</span></span><span class="s7" style="font-variant: small-caps;"><span class="bumpedFont15">reversing
language shift</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> to denote efforts to assist speech communities </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">whose native languages
are threatened because their intergenerational continuity is proceeding negatively, with fewer and fewer users (speakers, readers, writers, and even understanders) every generation</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> (1991:1).
Although his model includes a number of other critical stages and steps, he holds that the restoration of natural intergenerational transmission is a key factor. The term I use for this stage (Spolsky 1989, 1991) is </span></span><span class="s7" style="font-variant: small-caps;"><span class="bumpedFont15">revitalization</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">,
derived from Stewart</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">’</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">s and Fishman</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">’</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">s
definitions of </span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">vitality</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> as referring to parents using a language to raise their children.</span></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">8</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Management activities of reversing language shift
very rarely lead to revitalization. Hebrew is the exception (Fishman 1991, Spolsky 1995). In other cases, even though a result may be increase in knowledge of the language (as with Irish; O Laoire 1996) or in its use (as with Catalan; Strubell 2001; or French
in Québec</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">; Bourhis, 2001), most studies agree with the comment of Hornberger & King 2001 about Quechua, that the reattainment of intergenerational transmission is</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">difficult
and unlikely.</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> Given that the evidence so far shows that </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> is
not an exception like Heb</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">rew, the question arises of how to measure success in language regeneration.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">There is no need to rehearse the full story of </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"></span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">lost
and regained.</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> A clear account of </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> language
loss is given by Benton 1981), whose survey (Benton 1991) in the 1970s</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> drew attention to the serious state of the language. Benton & Benton 2001 bring the narrative up to date by reviewing the steps
taken with the goal of stopping language shift over the past decade. At first glance, it seems not unreasonable to interpret the observable facts in popular postcolonial terms, with all the normal villains (missionaries and settlers) and victims (native peoples
and their languages). In this essay, however, I wish to argue for an alternative reading that sees the process as the continued effort of two groups of people sharing common space, each taking an active role in negotiating the way in which that sharing should
be instantiated as regards language choice.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span class="s7" style="font-variant: small-caps;"><span class="bumpedFont15" style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);">literacy and loss</span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span class="s6" style="font-weight: bold;"><span class="bumpedFont15" style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);">English introduced by European contact</span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">In the early encounters between Europeans and </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">M</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">âori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">,
the newcomers were the ones who accommodated. The first communication between speakers of </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> and speakers of English took place when Captain
Cook circumnavigated New Zealand in the years 1769–1770 (Salmond 1991). In that first meeting, it was the</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Europeans who made an effort to learn </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">,
a situation that continued for some time (Maori Language Commission 1996:4). The missionaries who came or were brought to New Zealand after 1820 generally learned </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> and
used it in the schools they set up. Be</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">lich 1996 highlights the symbiotic relationship by showing that early missionaries were sponsored by local</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> chiefs,
who treated them virtually as vassals.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">In spite of their early support for the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">language,
it was the missionary schools that in t</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">ime brought English to the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">.</span></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">9</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> Literacy
in </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> came first.</span></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">10</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> Contemporary
accounts note the speed with which</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> learned to read, so that the missionaries had to work hard to fill the demand for reading matter, printing
large quantities of religiou</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">s material in the language.</span></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">11</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">About
half of adult </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> were assumed to be able to read their own language by the late 1850s, and a third to write it. Literacy was becoming indigenized,</span></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">12</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> as
witness the large number of letters preserved, or the recording o</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">f traditional knowledge noted by Best 1923. But the ultimate effect of literacy was to open up the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> to
Western ideas and values, starting with the variety of Victorian Protestant Christianity promulgated by the missionaries. Gaining control of the new</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> technique came with a high price.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Within a few years of the signing of the Treaty
of Waitangi</span></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">13</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> in 1840, on the basis of which the British Crown claimed sovereignty over New Zealand, the New
Zealand government started to support the mission schools,</span></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">14</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> implementing a government policy of civilizing and
pacifying the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">M</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">âori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">.</span></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">15</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> Tension
was growing between European settlers and </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> over the formers</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">’</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> efforts</span></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">16</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> to
take over the latters</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">’</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> land, which led finally to the New Zealand Wars of the 1860s (Belich 1986).</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Both government and </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> actively
supported education and th</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">e learning of English, but, according to Simon 1998, for different reasons. The government</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">’</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">s
aim, generally, was to replace </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> language and culture with English. The </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">,
on the other hand, who provided land and money for the mission schools, wanted t</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">o obtain English knowledge as a tool for dealing with the government and the new settlers. Each party then had its own
motivation. Just as there were differences of opinion about the meaning of land sales, so there were differences in the understanding of the role of education. Looked at in the full perspective of 200 years of contact, these conflicting views have been the
topic of continued negotiation and accommodation.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">The mission schools did not just teach Christianity
and </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">M</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">âori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> literacy; they also tried to </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">civilize</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> the</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">,
teaching skills that would fit them into the desirable colonial role of servants and manual laborers. Government support was dependent on their teaching English and was premised on the notions of the</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">inferiority
of </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> language and culture. But until 1860, Belich 1996 believes, the two peoples were starting to form </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">one
harmonious community,</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> to use the words of the governor in 1852. Economic interaction flourished, and a large proportion of </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> we</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">re
being converted to one form or another of Christianity. Through all this, Belich argues, the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> community maintained its autonomy and believed
it was gaining as much as it was paying.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">The peace collapsed about 1860, destroyed by disputes
over land a</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">nd a new government</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">’</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">s desire to assert full control. The British started
military actions in 1860, and for the next decade and more, some 18,000 British troops were engaged in operations against 60,000</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> men, women,
and children (Belich 1986:15), endin</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">g with a delayed and limited but final victory for the European settlers.</span></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">17</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"></span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">In 1867, the mission school system having been weakened
by the wars, the government passed the Native Schools Act (Simon 1998), intended to establish </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">village schools that wo</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">uld
teach through the medium of English.</span></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">18</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> The Act took nearly a century to have its full effect, but it was the
major step in the shift of </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">speakers from </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> monolingualism,
through an intermediate stage of bilingualism, to English monolingualism. </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Its dual goals were the benefits of education and </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">civilization</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> for
the natives, and equally important, the economic benefits of pacifying them and avoiding the expense of future wars. By 1879, 57 Native Schools had been established,</span></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"> </span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">19</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> mainly
in the far northern and eastern parts of the North Island, areas not directly affected by the recent wars.</span></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">20</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"></span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">It is a mistake, I suggest, to treat this as a one-way
colonial policy, for there was a wide range of </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">M</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">âori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">attitudes to these schools and
their policies. At one extreme were the rejectionists or separatists, who hoped to maintain </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> autonomy and identity. The other extreme might
be represented by one community</span></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">21</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> that wanted </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> banned
in its schools. </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Along the continuum in between were those communities and individuals who wanted English added but did not think it should replace </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">.
Benton (1981:54) claims that Sir Apirana Ngata, one of the most influential advocates in the 1930s for learning Englis</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">h, believed that </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">the
best equipped </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> today is bilingual and bicultural.</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> Simon
(1998:12) suggests that </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> who supported English schooling saw it as adding a skill needed </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">to
enable our descendants to cope with the Europeans.</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">These three positions,</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> which
might be named</span></span><span class="s7" style="font-variant: small-caps;"><span class="bumpedFont15">assimilationist, amalgamationist</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">,</span></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">22</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> and </span></span><span class="s7" style="font-variant: small-caps;"><span class="bumpedFont15">separatist</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">,
remain useful today as categorizing competing views of the nature of New Zealand identity. A common non-</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> attitude, accepted also by many
individuals of</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> descent, favors com</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">plete assimilation.</span></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">23</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> A
second non-</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> view, held also by many </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">,</span></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">24</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> is
that New Zealand identity can best be achieved by amalgamation (Ward 1995) of the peoples and the development of a single blended and merged population, with appropriate adoption </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">of some aspects of </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> culture
and language by the non-</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> majority. The third, separatist view assumes that </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> and
non-</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> can live side by side with equal rights but with distinct social and cultural institutions and languages.</span></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">25</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"></span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">The assimilati</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">onist
view clearly has no problem with the loss of </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> language. They blame any conflict on a small group responsible for making </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">dissatisfied
with their position in the New Zealand society (Nairn & McCreanor 1991). The amalgamationists would like n</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">on-</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> as
well as </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">to learn the language. Some non-</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> who
learned the language well resented being treated as outsiders by</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> communities. The separatists are those who insist on the revitalization
of </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> as the living language of the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">community,
ideally a </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> that reestablishes the appropriate dialect for each </span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">iwi </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">‘</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">tribe</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">’</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">.
Although there are variations in degree of separatism, it is the separatists who generally played important roles in the language revitalization movement. These thr</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">ee views and themes appear regularly
in the history of </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> contacts with non-</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">,
providing a perspective that will help us recognize and understand the points of view of both</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> and non-</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> in
two centuries of negotiation..</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">When the Education Ac</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">t
of 1877 established national free and compulsory secular schooling, some of the Native Schools transferred to the new system. Those that remained came under the Organizing Inspector of Native Schools, the first of whom, James Pope, established the Native Schools
Code of 1880, Article II of which set out an assimilationist language policy:</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s10" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 72px;"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15" style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);">It is not necessary that teachers should, at the time
of their appointment, be acquainted with the Maori tongue. In all cases English is to be used by the teacher when he is instructing the senior classes. In the junior classes the Maori language may be used for the purpose of making the children acquainted with
the meaning of English words and sentences. The aim of the teacher, however, should be to dispense with the use of Maori as soon as possible. (New Zealand General Assembly 1880)</span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Pope</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">’</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">s
successor in 1903, William Bird, saw no reason to wait at all and imposed a ban on the use of </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">M</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">âori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> in
school in order to implement the Direct Method that was popular for the teaching of foreign languages at the turn of the century (New Zealand Department of Education 1917).</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">The Native Schools and their assimilationist language
policies were a majo</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">r factor in the development of bilingualism and the growing status of English. </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">was
permitted back into the school curriculum only in 1909.</span></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">26</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> School policies and practices were in fact far from
uniform: There were teachers who believed in teaching Eng</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">lish through </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">, others
who permitted</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> in the playground but not the classroom, and others who punished pupils for using </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> words
in the school grounds. The Native Schools created a new and English-dominated domain built in the very heart of</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâo</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">ri</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> village
life. Initiated by the colonizing and civilizing government, but also accepted and supported by a growing proportion of assimilating or amalgamating</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> leaders,
these schools created </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">modern</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> English-speaking
space and certainly played a majo</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">r part in the eventual process of language loss.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> remained
the language of the community for the first decades of colonization, but slowly, changes in the demographic balance, in the pattern of settlement, and in the process of acculturation led to i</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">ts attrition.
Writing in 1949, Sir Peter Buck (1958) noted the revolutionary changes that had taken place within the</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> language, so that many old words
were no longer known or used, and even the best interpreters were having difficulty. English borrowi</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">ngs were also changing the language out of recognition. Buck saw not just language change but also
language loss.</span></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">27</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> Twenty years later, Metge 1967 observed widespread </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">-English
bilingualism. Because English was the language that they must use in daily </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">life outside the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> community,
she believed that virtually all </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> spoke enough English to get by.</span></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">28</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"></span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Summing up in terms of the language policy framework,
the changed political and demographic situation had led to a change in language practice, with</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">increasing use of English both inside and outside the Maori community. This was reinforced by government-imposed
educational management with its commitment to monolingual English education. Some ideological support for the value of the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> language conti</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">nued
within the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> community, but lacking support in language management activities – particularly policies for teaching the language to </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> children
– language practice was moving rapidly in the direction of English.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Nonlinguistic factors were critic</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">al.
Density of population was one. By the end of the twentieth century, the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> population was concentrated in the North Island, with more than
half living in Auckland, Waikato, or the Bay of Plenty. Outside these areas, language maintenance was much mor</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">e difficult. A second demographic factor was the movement from rural to urban areas after
World War II; in 1945, one-quarter lived in urban areas, but by the 1970s, only one-quarter remained in rural areas. The greater likelihood of mixing with English speakers in the towns obviously led to more rapid language loss. In addition, </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">M</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">âori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> continued
to constitute a socio-economically disadvantaged group.</span></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">29</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">They tended to be employed in occupations with lower
median incomes, to earn less than non-</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> with similar qualifications, to be more seriously affected by unemployment, and in spi</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">te
of recent improvements, to have lower educational qualifications.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">The loss of </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> was
confirmed by Benton 1981, who, between 1973 and 1978, conducted a survey of the knowledge and use of the language. He estimated that there remained about 70,000 nat</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">ive speakers in New Zealand, with
about 115,000 people able to understand the spoken language. Fluent speakers were a minority even within the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> population: As late as 1953,
just over half of the children in </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> schools had been said to speak the lan</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">guage,
and another quarter to understand it. Benton found that, by the 1970s, English was rapidly replacing </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">. In most North Island communities,
a majority of </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> adults could still speak and understand the language, but even in areas where </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> wer</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">e
a majority, English tended to be the language of the home, particularly with and among children. The assimilationists, it seems, were winning, and language was losing its place in </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> ethnic
identity.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"> </span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span class="s7" style="font-variant: small-caps;"><span class="bumpedFont15" style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);">resisting language loss</span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">About 20 years after Bento</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">n</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">’</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">s
survey a 1995 survey</span></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">30</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">found that nearly 60% of </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> adults
spoke some</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">, but the majority (83%) either had low fluency or did not speak it. English was the main language spoken in nearly 80% of </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> homes. </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> was
most commonly heard on the </span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">ma</span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">rae</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">‘</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">ceremonial
space in a</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> community</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">’</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> or
at </span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">hui </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">‘</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> meetings
or assemblies</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">’</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">. In the 1996 New Zealand Census,</span></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">31</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> a
total of 523,371 New Zealand residents identified themselves as ethnically </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">, making up 15% of the nation</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">’</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">s
total resident populat</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">ion. Of those, 25% said they could converse in </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">. The age
profile of </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> able to converse in </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> showed
that it was people over the age of 55 or under the age of 15 who were most likely to know </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">. Even though the absence of middle-aged speakers</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> of
the language was evidence of the loss found by Benton, the large number of speakers under age 15 showed a major reversal. It is this phenomenon that we next attempt to explain.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span class="s6" style="font-weight: bold;"><span class="bumpedFont15" style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);">Language (re)acquisition policies</span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">By the time that Benton conducted his survey in the 1970s, the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">M</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">âori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> language
was on the way to the lowest stage on Fishman</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">’</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">s (1991) </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Graded
Intergenerational Disruption Scale</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">, in which the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">vestigial</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> users
of the language are socially isolated (Benton & Benton 2001). Two decades later, the situation had changed.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Whe</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">re
did the impetus for regeneration come from? Although there were local causes and colorations,</span></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">32</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> a spurt of concern
for ethnic identity was a worldwide phenomenon in the 1960s and 1970s (Fishman et al. 1985). </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">The political activities that led to the setting up of the Waitangi Tribunal started earlier, but the major
language revival activities appear to date from the end of the 1970s. A </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">M</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">âori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">group</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">, </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Nga
Tamatoa</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">,</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">was</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">instrumental
in </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">raising</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> the consciousness of</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">community </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">by</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> lobbying
for </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">language to be taught in</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"></span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">schools</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">.
As a result, there developed four major interconnected sets of management activities in the area that Cooper</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> 1989 labels </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">language
acquisition policy,</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">aimed to teach </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> to
nonspeakers.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">Adult relearning of </span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">The first was the effort made by adult </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> to
learn their language. A handful of young people started to learn </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> at university or training c</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">ollege.</span></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">33</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> Because
only a minority of </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> attended university or teachers</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">’</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">college,
the gap in adult learning needed to be filled by a grassroots movement. In 1980, one of the founders of the Te Ataarangi movement, Mataira 1980, proposed the use of a fore</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">ign-language teaching method</span></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">34</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> that
was currently in vogue in the United States. Apart from a small seed grant at the beginning, the movement has continued independently to teach </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> to
an unknown number of adults. Its methodology has been adopted by som</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">e educational institutions, especially </span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">w</span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">â</span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">nanga</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">.</span></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">35</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Many
leaders of the language movement learned </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">in these programs.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mokopuna </span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">grandchildren.</span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15"></span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">A second initiative, starting a year or two later, was K</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">ô</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">hanga
Reo, a program intended originally to pass la</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">nguage proficiency from </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">-speaking
grandparents to their grandchildren (N. Benton 1989, King 2001). Much better known internationally than Te Ataarangi, Te</span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15"></span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Kôhanga </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Reo
has revolutionized language revival programs and has adherents in many parts of the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">world.</span></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">36</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">The
idea of a preschool start was mooted at a conference in 1980. Two years later, the first </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Kôhanga </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Reo was opened at Pukeatua near Wellington,
and by the end of the year there were about 50 similar programs throughout New Zealand. </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Kôhanga </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Reo we</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">re
set up in church buildings, on marae, in empty classrooms, or in private homes. The movement spread rapidly: by the end of 1983, there were 148 </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Kôhanga </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Reo,
each with 20 to 40 pupils; the following year there were 240, in <a href="tel:1985%20326" x-apple-data-detectors="true" x-apple-data-detectors-type="telephone" x-apple-data-detectors-result="3">1985 326</a>, and in <a href="tel:1988%20520" x-apple-data-detectors="true" x-apple-data-detectors-type="telephone" x-apple-data-detectors-result="4">1988
520</a>, reac</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">hing 819 by 1994.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Outside the direct control of the Ministry of Education, </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Kôhanga </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Reo
were supported by funds provided to a trust through Te Puni K</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">ô</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">kiri, the Ministry of </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> Development.
Individual </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Kôhanga </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Reo are run by the parents. Over the years, na</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">tional programs have
been developed and efforts have been made to develop teacher training. Initially, the model was simple: </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">-speaking grandparents came together
to look after and teach </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> to their own grandchildren, who were otherwise brought up b</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">y
English-speaking parents. Most</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Kôhanga </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Reo</span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15"> </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">were
small, and many were successful in developing </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> language fluency.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">Kura Kaupapa </span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">The third initiative, an outgrowth of the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Kôhanga </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Reo
movement and an expression of dissatisfaction with the slow pr</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">ovision of bilingual education in the regular school system, was the Kura Kaupapa </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> independent
school movement. At age 5, the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">-speaking graduates of </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Kôhanga </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Reo
were ready to go to elementary school. Occasionally, this challenge was met by the es</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">tablishment of bilingual classes at public schools (see below), but when this did not happen, some communities took
their own initiative. The first </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">immersion primary school was opened in 1985 on </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Hoani
Waititi marae</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> near Auckland. Another school, the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">first to use the name Kura Kaupapa </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">,
was established in 1987 by the parents of children graduating from two</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Kôhanga </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Reo in Auckland (Smith 1997). A third opened the following year
and two more in 1990. To start with, these </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> grassroots schools wer</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">e outside the
formal state system, but the 1989 Education Amendment Act made it possible for Kura Kaupapa </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> to be an option</span></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">37</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> within
the system (Smith 1997). By June 1995, there were 38 state-funded Kura Kaupapa </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">, authorized under the Education Ac</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">t
of 1989, Section 155, which allowed for the designation of schools where the parents of at least 21 pupils wanted a school with </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">as the
principal language of instruction. In 1997, the Ministry of Education reported that there were 54 </span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">kura</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">, with abou</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">t
3,700 pupils involved. Four were designated as </span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">wharekura</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">, schools with secondary programs.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">These three grassroots language acquisition initiatives
at the adult, preschool, and elementary school level have no doubt been the major component of the</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> r</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">esistance
to language loss. Their effects are showing signs of going beyond the classroom. Two-thirds of </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> adults with children under age 15 in school
said their children were learning </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">, and most were satisfied with the outcome: the more they were</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">learning,
the more satisfaction was expressed (Statistics New Zealand, 2001). One out of five said that they had helped or worked in a Kohanga Reo or a Kura Kaupapa</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> in
the past year. This constitutes a clear swing in the direction of separatism, esp</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">ecially in parents</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">’</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">reluctance
to permit English in the school. At the same time, the fact that the programs do not generally continue to the high school level (see next section) suggests a much more accommodating position.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15" style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);">State schools.</span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Providing further support for the notion of negotiation, in parallel
with these </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">M</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">âori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> initiatives, the Ministry of Education has been responding to community
pressures to support </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> language teaching. The </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> language
and culture was permitted back into the schools as early as the 1920s. </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> became a university entrance examinat</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">ion
subject then, but was not actively taught until 20 years later. The state school interest in </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">culture reached its climax in the 1980s, with
the addition of </span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">Taha </span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15"> </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">as
a school program, intended to teach</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> culture to both </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> and
non-</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> students, the paradigmatic example of the ideology of amalgamation.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">After the establishment in 1978 of the first bilingual
school at Ruatoki, the New Zealand Department of Education started to make provision for </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> bilingual education in some regular </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">primary
schools. Spolsky 1989 described the characteristics of the programs that developed. There were no curriculum materials available, and the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">-speaking
inspectors and advisers were too busy helping mainstream schools with the new Taha</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> progra</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">ms
to give much help to the immersion classes. The teachers tended to be highly experienced early childhood experts who had never used their native</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> in
the school context. Assisted sometimes by</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">-speaking aides and often by elderly relatives, they</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">set
up their classrooms as closed </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> space in which only </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> was
spoken. Though officially called</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">bilingual</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> programs,
many of them were in fact immersion programs.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Bilingual and immersion </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">-medium
programs have continued to exist in the state </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">system. As a general rule, they are individual classrooms within a regular school, intended to provide continuation for </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Kôhanga</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Reo
graduates. Their existence attests to a major change in the general language policy of New Zealand education. </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> is now r</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">ecognized
as a school language, and when the new national curriculum for mathematics was published, a </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> version was also prepared. Similarly, the
new national curriculum for English was paralleled with the national curriculum for</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">As a result of </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">this
change of policy, by 1992 more than 16,000 </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> children were receiving some form of</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">-medium
instruction in state or </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> schools. In 1997, there were 54 Kura Kaupapa </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">,
11 other immersion schools, 86 bilingual schools, 115 immersion classe</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">s, and 220 bilingual classes (Benton & Benton 2001). In 1998, there were more than 27,000 </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">students
in these classes, and there were in addition nearly 5,000 non-</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> students in the lower level</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">-medium
classes. These classes were spread over 47</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">2 schools. In 20 years, then, there had been a revolutionary change in education policy.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">These changes, however, are so far mainly restricted
to elementary schools; only a few Kura Kaupapa </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">include secondary programs. According to Te Puni Kokiri 2001</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">,
during the years 1993–1998, there was an actual decrease in the number of secondary students choosing to study </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">, and significant attrition
among those who did choose it.</span></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">38</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">The Inventory of </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> Language
Services (Te Puni Kokiri 2000) lists a large </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">number of government-supported educational activities: grants to establish Early Childhood Centers, subsidies to </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Kôhanga </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">reo,
funds for Kura Kaupapa </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">, inservice training for </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">-medium
teachers, preservice training for bilingual teachers, salary all</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">owances for </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">-medium
teachers, as well as funds for curriculum material, language learning material, and assessment. But there is still no general </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> language
strategy as called for in the 1999 Guidelines discussed in the next section (Te Puni Kokir</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">i 1999b), something no doubt explained by the absence of consensus on what plan would be acceptable to all
elements. The first object in the government </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">language strategy discussed below –increasing the number of speakers by providing more learning
o</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">pportunities – seems simple enough, until one asks some harder questions. Does this mean </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">fluent
speakers</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">able to function in all domains? If so, none of the many programs in place has made even a beginning. If, instead, it means only increasing
the number of students who have studied </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">M</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">âori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> in school and have some limited acquaintance
with it, like the knowledge of a foreign language usually acquired in a school system, then it seems a somewhat unsatisfying goal for such a major enterprise. Keegan 1997 is doubtful about the levels of pro</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">ficiency
attained in the school programs, and the Te Hoe Nuku Roa baseline study found that only 50% of the children in their study participated in programs, and only 12% could converse in </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">;
few had reached advanced proficiency.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s6" style="font-weight: bold;"><span class="bumpedFont15">From grassroots pressu</span></span><span class="s6" style="font-weight: bold;"><span class="bumpedFont15">re
to government policy</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s11" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 6px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">The four language acquisition management activities described so
far have, in the main, been grassroots initiatives or the result of community pressure on the Ministry of Education. At the same time, there has finally been success in persuading the New Zealand government to adopt a wider </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">M</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">âori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> language
policy.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">New Zealand, like many other English-speaking countries,
has managed to avoid proclaiming an explicit language policy. In the nineteenth century, during the early years of contact, it appears to have been accepted that </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> and
non-</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> would each learn the other</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">’</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">s
language, but starting in the 1870s, school language policy worked actively to teach English and suppress</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">. During the twentieth century,
it was assumed that minority groups, whether autochthonous or immigrant, must </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">somehow do their best to develop control of the national language. The change started in the mid-1970s as a result of </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> initiative
and with minimal government support. It represented not national policy, but efforts by interest groups to circumvent or </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">influence government policy.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">By 1990, however, two decades of </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> pressure
were starting to pay off, and a national </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> language policy was emerging.</span></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">39</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> Matthews
1999 cites two critical steps in the 1970s: the petition organized by Nga Tamatoa, a radic</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">al youth movement, and submitted to the government signed by 30,000 people in 1973 asking for a better </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> language
policy; and the T</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">û</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> Tangata movement for </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> self-sufficiency
in the late 1970s. The grassroots programs for teaching </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> were not just</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">practical
steps but also played an important role in preparing the ground for government recognition.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">The decisive breakthrough in government recognition
came as a result of the success of the claim to the Waitangi Tribunal by a Wellington-based </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">or</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">ganization,
Te Kaiwhakap</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">û</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">mau i Te Reo </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">,
that the New Zealand government had failed to protect the</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> language and that this failure was a breach of a promise made in the Treaty of
Waitangi. The tribunal (Waitangi Tribunal 1986) found that the treat</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">y did include such a promise, which had not been kept: </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">The</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">‘</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">guarantee</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">’</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> in
the Treaty requires affirmative action to protect and sustain the language, not a passive obligation to tolerate its existence and certainly not the right to deny its use in any place.</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Since its establishment in 1975, the Waitangi Tribunal
has had a major influence on the status of the</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">M</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">âori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> people in New Zealand. Starting
in the late 1980s, the tribunal has issued a number of important judgments dealing with claims for compensation for government lands and forests, commercial fishing rights, the safeguarding of </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> interests
in environ</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">mental management, and equal opportunity for </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> in public employment.
Language, it is important to note, is only one of the topics that have been affected by decisions of the tribunal.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">In 1987, in compliance with the tribunal</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">’</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">s
decision on the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> lan</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">guage, the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> Language
Act 1987 became law. The purpose of the act was </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">to declare the</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> language
to be an official language of New Zealand.</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> The first substantive section of the act recognized a right for anyone to speak </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> in
legal proceedings,</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> calling for an interpreter to be available whenever reasonable notice had been given. The second substantive part of the 1987 act established a </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Language
Commission, which was to be named Te Komihana M</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">ô</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Te Reo </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">.</span></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">40</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> The
commission was to advise on </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">the implementation of policies and practices to give effect to official status, to promote the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">language </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">and,
in particular, its use as a living language and as an ordinary means of communication,</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> to issue certificates of competency in the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> lan</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">guage;
and to advise the minister on any matter related to the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">language.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">By passing the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> Language
Act, New Zealand had adopted a two-part </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> language policy. The first part allows for the symbolic use of the language in law courts, and
the ot</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">her establishes a government institution to encourage the use of the language. Implementation of these first two steps was slow but steady.</span></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">41</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">To start with, the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> Language
Commission seems to have envisaged its role as something like that of language a</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">cademies in countries with a strong national standard language, such as France or Spain (Te Puni Kokiri 1998g). It wanted
to defend the purity of standard</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">, dealing with issues of terminological innovation and grammatical correctness.</span></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">42</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> Towards
the en</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">d of its first decade, it drafted a </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> Language Strategic Plan (Matthews
1999). The document started with a vision statement: </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">By the year 2011, the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> language
will have been significantly revitalized as a dynamic feature of everyday life. This will</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> involve sustained increases in both the number of people who speak </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">,
and its level of use.</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> Four key outcomes were envisioned: </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">was
to be the principal language of a significant number of people in </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> domains; it would be spoken by different </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">generations
in </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> homes and communities in everyday life; it would be accepted also in non-</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">domains;
and the general public would have positive attitudes toward it. Like the earlier New Zealand language policy report (Waite 1992), though, this was </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">a somewhat academic document with little or no attention
to bureaucratic implementation. It reads more like a philosophy for </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> language policy than a management document.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Te Puni K</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">ô</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">kiri
subsequently took a more bureaucratic but realistic approach to a </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> language policy or strategy,</span></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">43</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> releasing
a series of short policy papers starting in June 1997. The first (Te Puni Kokiri 1997c) set out the legal obligations of the government toward the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> language,
showing their basis in the Treaty of Waitangi,</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> in subsequent decisions of the Waitangi Tribunal and other courts, and in other legislation with implications for language policy, such as the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> Language
Act of 1989, the Education Act of 1989, the Broadcasting Act of 1989, and the Bill of Rights Act </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">of 1990. It cited also two international documents, the International Covenant on Civil and Political
Rights and the Draft Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. Two policy papers described language planning (Te Puni Kokiri 1997a, 1997b). These papers and other lobbying paid off, and on September 8, 1997, the cabinet agreed </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">that
the Crown and </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">M</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">âori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> are under a duty derived from the Treaty of Waitangi to take all
reasonable steps to actively enable the survival of</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> as a living language</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> (Matthews
1999:7). In December 1997, the New Zealand government agreed to five </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> language policy objec</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">tives:
to increase the number of </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> speakers by increasing opportunities to learn the language; to improve the level of </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">proficiency;
to increase opportunities to use </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">; to develop the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> language
for the full range of modern activities; and</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> to foster positive attitudes so that</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">/English
bilingualism </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">becomes a valued part of New Zealand society</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> (Te
Puni Kokiri 1999b).</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Te Puni K</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">ô</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">kiri
was designated by the cabinet to lead an </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">officials group</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> from
other government departments to implemen</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">t the policy. A series of internal policy papers was prepared over the next year. Te Puni</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Kôkiri </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">1998b
summarized a paper written for the New Zealand Treasury (Grin & Vaillancourt 1998) that described language management for Basque and Welsh. Other positio</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">n papers described a Galway (Ireland) federation
of state and nonstate organizations working for the promotion of Irish (Te Puni Kokiri 1998a), discussed evaluation (Te Puni Kokiri 1998d), described the work of language academies and the issue of certifying language competence (Te Puni Kokiri 1998c), set
out objectives for the public and private sectors in providing services in </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> (Te Puni Kokiri 1998f), and laid down the tasks for modernizing </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> (Te
Puni Kokiri 1998e). The final paper in the series, appropriately titled </span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">Te Reo </span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15"> </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">(Te
Puni Kokiri 1998h), provided a historical review of the loss of </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">and a description</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> of
revitalization efforts up the 1990s.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">In 1999, the strategy went public, with the publication
of guidelines (Te Puni Kokiri 1999a, 1999b) addressed to Public Service departments and to nongovernmental organizations. Government departments were instructed and nongovernmental organizations were encouraged to assist with the revitalization of the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> language.
Each publication listed general objectives and </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">key aspects</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> of
implementation: a </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> Language Education Plan;</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> language
broadcast media; guidelines to assist public service departments (or, in the appropriate version, organizations)</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> to develop their own policies and plans; </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> language
corpus activities; and appropriate</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">mechanisms for monitoring and evaluating </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">language
activities.</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> The guidelines encouraged each department to develop its own </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> language
policy statement. </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">The implementation of these policies was expected to take three or four years. A further position paper (Te Puni Kokiri 1999c) described the management efforts for French in Québec
and for Frisian in Fryslân, noting that the Québec linguistic organization had a staff of more than 230 to handle a much larger population, and the Frisian (with approximately the same number of speakers as </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">M</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">âori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">)
managed with about 64, while New Zealand had only 9 people staffing Te Taura Whiri, the</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> Language Commission.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">The 1999 national budget allocated funds to Te Puni</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Kôkiri </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">to
contract with Statistics New Zealand to conduct a survey of the health o</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">f the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> language
by interviewing in depth a sample of </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">. Te Puni </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Kôkiri</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">in
June 2000 published its inventory of </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> language services in 35 government agencies. By the end of the 1990s, then, a handful of professionally
sophisticated policy-maker</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">s, with a good understanding of language planning processes, had begun a bureaucratic campaign to shape the design, implementation, and evaluation of New Zealand</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">’</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">s </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> language
policy. It is too early to assess the results, but the important thing to not</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">e is that the twenty-first century opened with the government moving in directions not dissimilar from the grassroots movement.
The policy for </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> that had been adopted is well in line with the various language rights movements in Europe. Indeed, in bot</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">h
individual and collective rights in education and public service, the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">language in New Zealand is in a much better position than minority
languages under European Union policies.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15" style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);">Broadcasting policy.</span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">This is true of a third important area of activi</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">ty,
radio and TV broadcasting. Many nineteenth-century language revival and standardization movements focused their efforts around newspapers. Led as they often were by highly literate city-dwellers, these i newspapers became both a place to carry on debates about
the revived language and symbols of the revival. In the twentieth century, the continuation of newspapers in a threatened language was considered evidence of its vitality (Fishman 1966). The first </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">M</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">âori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> language
newspaper, </span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">Te Karere o Nui Tireni,</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> appeared in Auckland in 1842; by the end of the century there were a number publishing
news of international, national, and local importance. In the 1930s, most ceased to publish entirely in </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">, and the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> newspapers
and magazines that continue have only a proportion of </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> language content.</span></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">44</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"></span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Recent developments in </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> have
been stronger with the spoken than the written language. Benton 1981 described the first steps taken this to improve the posi</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">tion of the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> language
in public broadcasting. In 1986, the Broadcasting Corporation of New Zealand set up the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> Radio Board to broadcast in </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">nationally.
The Broadcasting Act of 1989 included</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">promoting </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> language
and culture</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> in the funct</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">ions of the Broadcasting Commission. In the same year, the
government reserved a number of radio frequencies for</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> use. In 1993, there were 20 iwi-based radio stations in the North Island, and one
in the South Island. These radio stations were required</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> to devote most of their time to promoting </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> language
and culture, although a survey in 1991 by the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> Language Commission found that the percentage of </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">language
content varied from 20% to 85%.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">In 1993, Te M</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">â</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">ngai
Paho, the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> Broadcasting F</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">unding Agency, was set up with a statutory role of promoting </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> language
and culture by distributing funds, responding to a high court decision (Broadcasting Assets Case – New Zealand </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> Council versus Attorney-General
– 1992, 2, NZLR 576) supporting</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> the Waitangi Tribunal</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">’</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">s views of the importance of
broadcasting. There was dissatisfaction with the speed of development, and after review, the strengthening of Te</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mângai</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Paho was announced in
May 1998. A </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">television trust was to be established to ope</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">rate a separate </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> television
channel. This followed findings of the Waitangi Tribunal</span></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">45</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> and cited international recognition of the role of
minority language broadcasting in language revival.</span></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">46</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Benton & Benton 2001 offer an evaluation of these
activiti</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">es. They point out that the 21 iwi-based radio stations </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">eke out a fairly
miserable existence,</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> relying on voluntary staff and fund-raising. Nonetheless, they serve a valuable function in resisting language shift </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">by
communicating with their grassroots business in local talk shows, broadcasting world and local news in a manner reminiscent of the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">M</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">âori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> newspapers
of the turn of the previous century.</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> They also provide jobs for speakers of </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">.
Benton & Benton conclude that on balance, the effect has so far been largely cosmetic and unable to correct the major push towards English of regular radio </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">and television. </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">If
people would turn off their television sets, the channel would not be needed. Be that as it may, television in New Zealand promotes language shift away from </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">,
rather than helping to reverse it</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> (Benton & Benton 2001:440).</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s6" style="font-weight: bold;"><span class="bumpedFont15">The role </span></span><span class="s6" style="font-weight: bold;"><span class="bumpedFont15">of
the iwi</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">One final trend needs comment. Before the coming of the Europeans,
and for a long time after, </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> life in New Zealand was dominated by tribal organization and rivalry. As the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> people
lost and left their homelands, the role of the urban </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâ</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">ori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> grew, but the importance
of iwi and hapu (sub-tribe) continued to be stressed. Because the Treaty of Waitangi was made between tribal chiefs and the Crown, the cases brought before the Tribunal are almost entirely tribal, and awards that have been made so far are to tribes and not
individuals. A clear result has been the renewed strength of tribal bonds, both in seeking redress for treaty wrongs and determining how to use the proceeds.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">There has been a recent increase in language regeneration
efforts </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">associated with individual iwi, some of which date back to the beginning of the movement. Nicholson 1990 describes the efforts of Ng</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">â</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">ti
Raukawa ki te Au-o-te Tonga, a </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> tribe situated in the southwest of the North Island, who about 1980 started a series of ten-day immersion
courses for teaching </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">language to adults. Te W</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">â</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">nanga-o-Raukawa,
a </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">tertiary institute, is a continuation of this Ng</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">â</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">ti
Raukawa initiative and emphasizes </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> language in its programs.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">One tribe whose treaty settlement has been completed
and that is putting strong emphasis on language activities is Ng</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">â</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">i Tahu, the South Island iwi</span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15"></span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">whose
language loss was most advanced. A manager for the language project has been appointed, a goal has been established to have a thousand Ng</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">â</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> Tahu
homes speaking the local variety of </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> (the dialect is distinct) by 2025, and immersion courses are being offered. Dialectal forms are being
collected.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Encouraged also by the Ministry of Education, a
T</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">û</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">hoe Educational Agency has been set up to strengthen the schools that provide service to Tuhoe children. A similar initiative for five Ng</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">â</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">ti
Porou and East Coast schools is offering a method of dealing with the governance and educational problems of the small Kura Kaupapa and state schools in the area. In March 2000, the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> Language
Commission published a booklet with advice to iwi and hapu on developing long-term language planning. In language policy as in other areas, the tension is slowly evolving between the traditional land-based tribal organization of the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> people,
bolstered by the legal provisions and economic effects of the Waitangi Tribunal awards, and the new urban-based mixed tribal groups which were directly involved in developing </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Kôhanga </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Reo
and Kura Kaupapa </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"> </span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span class="s7" style="font-variant: small-caps;"><span class="bumpedFont15" style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);">conclusions</span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">If I accepted the simple </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">colonial
language destruction, postcolonial revival</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> formula, I would now be facing the quandary of trying to sum up the success of the efforts at reversing
language shift, and wondering, as those who consider the Irish case do, whether more people knowing the language makes up for fewer people speaking it (Dorian 1987). So far, 20 years of activity have produced no more than a handful of new speakers who might
be expected to ensure natural intergenerational transmission to their own children. It has, however, made it likely that many of the graduates of the immersion and bilingual programs will want their own children to have a chance to learn </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> as
their second language. In other words, the institutionalization of schooling in </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> and the establishing of community support (within the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">community
and in national government policy if not yet in non-</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> New Zealand ideology) are starting to set the conditions for continuity. This is not
the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">natural</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">intergenerational
transmission reestablished uniquely with the revitalization of Hebrew at the beginning of the twentieth century, but rather the institutional form set up with the establishment of an educational system that kept Hebrew knowledge alive for 1,500 years after
the Romans destroyed Jewish autonomy in Palestine; it is like similar programs that are maintaining Irish and other institutionally supported minority languages.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">This reading is, of course, much more consistent
with the reading of the story not as colonialism and postcolonialism, but as the continued negotiation of an acceptable relationship between </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> and
non-</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> as represented specifically in an appropriate sharing of functional distribution between </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> and
English (and any other New Zealand languages that may ultimately be included). Bell (1999:540), a New Zealand non-</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">linguist, describes </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">the
cultural ambivalence of what it is to be a New Zealander in a nascent bicultural society, a mix of two identities, of two cultures, not yet at home with either, but perhaps on the way towards being so.</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Chrisp
1997, a New Zealand </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> linguist, proposes a goal of diglossia, very similar to current Council of Europe views of plurilingualism,</span></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">47</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> that
assumes a continual tension based not on conflictual demands for rights but on resolvable claims for respect. The </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">people seem to have recognized
that English monolingualism offers them no more than did </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">monolingualism, and that a blend of separatism in some spheres and amalgamation
in others need not mean loss of identity. If this turns out to be the case, then </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">language regeneration will certainly deserve a special
place on the list of reversals of language shift.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">What, in fact, are achievable goals for the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">language
program? The first Maori Language Commissioner put his emphasis on the maintenance and restoration of good Maori. His successor sets as a goal the learning of the language by a sizable proportion of New Zealanders, Maori and non-Maori alike (Hohepa 2000).
The government strategy, as such documents tend to be, is vague enough to be very loosely interpreted and to support the many initiatives being undertaken.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Chrisp 1997 is one of the few recent writers to
tackle the issue of goals head on. He presents three possible frameworks. The first is </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> monolingualism in </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">,
the utopian and separatist goal of returning the language to its former glory. He cites Hebrew as a case where this goal was achieved.</span></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">48</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> Chrisp
rejects this alternative as impractical. The second possible goal, which he also rejects, is the creation of local </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">-speaking sub-populations,
village or urban communities where only </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> will be used. Even naturally isolated communities (as the Gaeltacht</span></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">49</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> once
was) no longer are able to last as language islands, unless perhaps they are bolstered by strong religion or ideology.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Having rejected these two models, Chrisp presents
the case for what he labels </span></span><span class="s7" style="font-variant: small-caps;"><span class="bumpedFont15">diglossia</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">,</span></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">50</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> more
or less defined as the sharing by two languages of domains</span></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">51</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> or functions in a speech community. He argues that </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">communities
at the various levels (wh</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">â</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">nau, hapu, iwi) need to decide for themselves what functions or domains should be </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">,
and this decision should establish the language policy for that community. Though still far from simple, his approach offers more promise than the alternatives.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s12" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 6px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">One function Chrisp sees as critical. He, like
most students of reversing language shift activities, agrees with Fishman that </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">natural intergenerational transmission</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> is
the major goal to establish future continuity. First, the program needs to produce students who will take the endangered language out of the classroom and use it with one another, and second, young adults who will marry other new speakers and speak the language
to their own children. These two steps, all agree, were the wonder of the revitalization of Hebrew.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s12" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 6px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">But are there examples of similar success in other
cases? We have many cases of formerly oppressed minority or local majority languages – like Estonian, Québec French, Catalan, or Welsh – that have used new political power to slow down the slide toward the previously dominant language. In other cases, with
Irish the best-known, national language policy has managed to maintain the status and the teaching of a language, but not its widespread use or the restoration of its vitality, in Stewart</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">’</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">s
(1968) or Fishman</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">’</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">s sense of a language spoken to the next generation.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">In the two decades since the start of Te K</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">ô</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">hanga
Reo and the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">-medium schools it engendered, a large number of </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> have
been provided with enlarged learning opportunities. How many of them make extensive use of the language in work and daily life? And of this elite, how many speak to their children in </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">all
the time? It is clear that the various language management activities have led to an increase in the number of people learning the language, and that this has been matched by more favorable attitudes and stronger support for the language. There are signs too
of increased use: in the classrooms if not yet in the playgrounds, in parents encouraging their children to show off their school-acquired skills, in the symbolic publication of government documents and in the use of the language in public signs, in growing
use on the radio. The report of the use of </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> words by </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> speaking
English evidences a strong desire for identity through language (Kennedy 2001).</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Certainly there have been important changes in language
practice over the past two or three decades. More </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> know their language, and they use it increasingly in education, in symbolic public domains,
and on the radio; the threat to its use on the marae appears to have been checked; and there are indications of maintenance of home language use if not yet of natural intergenerational transmission. In fact, a developing pattern of transmission appears to
be the school-based second language teaching model that has traditionally been successful in maintaining sacred and classical languages.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Alongside this checking of actual language loss,
there is evidence of growing ideological support for the language and its maintenance among a good proportion of the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> community. This is
shown not just in attitudes (Te Puni Kokiri 2002) but also in the large number of </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> adults spending time supporting K</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">ô</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">hanga
Reo and Kura Kaupapa </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">. </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> language
education has become one focal point for the mobilization of the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> ethnic revival.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">These changes have resulted not just from the general
external pressures for ethnic revival, but also from specific language management activities. Cooper 1989 proposes asking a number of questions about language policy. To the question </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Who
does it?</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> in New Zealand, the answer is complex. A basis was provided by the work of Maori linguists and language scholars who wrote the dictionaries
and grammars and taught the university courses that helped preserve the language. The initiation of management activity, whether by schools, government, or other agencies, was in response to demands by the Maori community for language education, and for much
of this, the language managers were educators, parents, and grandparents who organized and conducted the institutional programs and who continue to lobby for government support for these programs. The government policy that emerged was a result of public pressures,
channeled skillfully by a handful of language policy experts, into an achievable Maori language strategy. The </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">what</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> involved,
we have seen, decisions affecting language acquisition, language use, and language form. The </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">why</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> varies,
of course, with the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">who,</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> but
it is significant to note that there is as yet no clear consensus on the precise goals of the strategy; the one agreement seems to be the need to check language loss.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Finally, the question of </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">with
what effect</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> also requires a more complex answer. First, there has not yet been language revitalization in the sense of the restoration of natural
intergenerational transmission. Balancing this, there is good evidence that language loss has been checked, and that school-related and community-approved processes are leading to steady-state language maintenance. From the purely linguacentric point of view,
the efforts appeared to have been successful. All of this language-related activity has accompanied important changes taking place in the status of the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> people
in New Zealand, and much-needed efforts to establish equality for New Zealand</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">’</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">s autochthonous minority group. New Zealand language policy for </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> has
proved to be a successful focus for mobilization, and combined with other developments, it signals a further stage in the long and often painful process of negotiation between </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> and
non-</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> in New Zealand.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15" style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);">Notes</span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span style="padding-left: 36px;"></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">*Work on this article began
when I taught M</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">â</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">ori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">students in my classes at Gisborne High School in 1954. It continued
during periodic return visits to New Zealand, and benefited from an appointment as visiting research fellow at the International Research Institute for</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> and
Indigenous Education of the University of Auckland in 2000. Over the years, I have benefited from conversations and assistance from a large number of people, most of them cited in the References. I thank the two anonymous reviewers of an earlier version of
this article for their useful corrections and comments, and the editor for her patient help in reshaping the text.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span style="padding-left: 36px;"></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">1</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Following
current </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> practice, I write long vowels in </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> words
with a macron.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span style="padding-left: 36px;"></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">2</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Just
as with the term </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">speech community,</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> any
size group is theoretically interesting, but generally the unit studied is a political one, a state or autonomous region. The focus of this article is New Zealand, and within that, the people of </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> descent.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span style="padding-left: 36px;"></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">3</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Holmes
1997 describes </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> English and suggests it is a source of innovation for New Zealand English. Kennedy 2001 found that New Zealanders of </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">descent
were much more likely than non-</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> to use</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> words
when speaking English (about 17 words per thousand compared to about 1 per thousand). As very few of them were </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> speakers, he argues that
this is code-mixing for identity purposes rather than interference.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span style="padding-left: 36px;"></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">4</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">It
includes thus the attitudinal factors that constitute what Bourhis 2001 (see also Giles et al. 1973) labels</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">ethnolinguistic vitality</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">;
other factors in the Bourhis model are matters of language practice, or nonlinguistic.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span style="padding-left: 36px;"></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">5</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Again,
the choice of level of analysis may vary, from a single sociolinguistically significant phonological variable, through clusters of variables that constitute a recognizable variety such as a social or regional dialect, to what is agreed by the community to
be a distinct language.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">6</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">The
interrelationship between these first two components is usually straightforward: for example, a greater number of speakers and a more significant set of functions of a variety generally affects the attitude of members of the social group to the variety, while
the attitude in turn helps account for readiness to learn, teach, or use the variety.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span style="padding-left: 36px;"></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">7</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">I
call it </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">language management,</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> to
avoid the confusion in distinguishing between the term often used,</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">language planning</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> (Kaplan
1994a, 1994b; Kaplan & Baldauf 1997) and language policy itself.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span style="padding-left: 36px;"></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">8</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">For
Stewart 1968, </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">vitality</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> refers
to actual practice; for Fishman 1970, it refers rather to the belief that a language should be used to speak to children.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span style="padding-left: 36px;"></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">9</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">For
a discussion of the contribution of missionaries to colonial linguistics, see Errington 2001.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span style="padding-left: 36px;"></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">10</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">An
early textbook for teaching English to </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">children was titled </span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">Willie</span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">’</span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">s
first English book, written for young Maoris who can read their own Maori tongue, and who wish to learn the English language</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> (Colenso 1872).</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span style="padding-left: 36px;"></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">11</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">It
was estimated that by 1845 there was at least one Bible for every second </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> (Simon 1998).</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span style="padding-left: 36px;"></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">12</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">There
might have developed, as in 19th-century Tonga (Spolsky et al. 1984), a bilingual and biliterate society.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span style="padding-left: 36px;"></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">13</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">For
background to this controversial, critically central document and its conflicting interpretations, see Kawharu 1989, McHugh 1991, and Orange 1987.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span style="padding-left: 36px;"></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">14</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">The
1847 Education Ordinance and the 1858 Native Schools Act.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span style="padding-left: 36px;"></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">15</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Simon
(1998:7) cites a member of the House of Representatives who saw the aim of schooling as </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">the civilization of the race and the quieting of the
country.</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span style="padding-left: 36px;"></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">16</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Fenton
2001 documents interpreting problems in the negotiations over land, arguing that the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> and the Europeans had different cultural perceptions
of the process.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span style="padding-left: 36px;"></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">17</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Belich
(1986:132) notes that the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">mobilization at any time was between two and four thousand, so that </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> were
outnumbered from 4:1 to 10:1 in actual campaigns.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span style="padding-left: 36px;"></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">18</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">In
this, they followed the Anglicist position in British colonial education policy rather than the vernacular-first policy that became common in Africa.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span style="padding-left: 36px;"></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">19</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> communities
that wanted a school were initially expected to supply land and pay half the cost of the building and a quarter of the salary of the teacher.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span style="padding-left: 36px;"></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">20</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Resistance
to the schools continued in Waikato and Taranaki, regions that Belich 1986 notes remained more or less autonomous for many years.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span style="padding-left: 36px;"></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">21</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">It
was a community in Northland where, as reported by Barrington (R. A. Benton 1981), more than 300 </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> signed a petition requesting that the
Native Schools Act be amended to require that the teacher and his wife be </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">altogether ignorant of the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> language.</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span style="padding-left: 36px;"></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">22</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">I
take the term from Ward 1995.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">23</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">A
recent survey (Te Puni Kokiri 2002) found that 12% of non- </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">s interviewed believed that only English should be used in New Zealand. About
40% expressed no opinion or were uninterested in </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> culture. Among</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">,
12% were uninterested in </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> culture.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span style="padding-left: 36px;"></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">24</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Among </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">,
the survey (Te Puni Kokiri 2002) classified two-thirds of the respondents as </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">cultural developers,</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> people
who were willing to share </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">language and culture with all ethnic groups.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">25</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">A</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">b</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">out
one-fifth of the respondents in the survey (Te Puni Kokiri 2002) were categorized as </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> only,</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">who
held that </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> language and culture were the exclusive domain of </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span style="padding-left: 36px;"></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">26</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">As
a secondary school optional subject for the Junior Civil Service Examination, and in 1931 as a required subject for boys and girls on Junior Scholarship (Simons 1998:74).</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span style="padding-left: 36px;"></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">27</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Old </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> would
become a classical language like Anglo-Saxon, and a modern variety based on it </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">will continue as the current speech of a racial minority until
the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> homes use English as their common medium of speech</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> (p.
82).</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span style="padding-left: 36px;"></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">28</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">While
many </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">s spoke and wrote English well, a </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">large
proportion</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> used a nonstandard form of the language associated with social class and lack of education. </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> was
still the main medium of communication among adults, but children, adolescents, and young adults preferred English. She was, however, encouraged to find that, as they grew up, many </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">s
showed an interest in learning their language. </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Those who do not speak </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> are
ashamed of a lack which diminishes their mana in a </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> setting, and often try to remedy it. Almost every </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> conference
that meets passes a resolution urging that </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> be taught in all secondary schools. Though </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> is
undoubtedly decreasing as a means of daily, interpersonal communication, it remains vitally important as a vehicle for </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> ceremonial, and
the chief symbol of </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">distinctiveness</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> (p.
65).</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span style="padding-left: 36px;"></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">29</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Full-time
employed </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> in 1997 had an average weekly income of NZ$537, compared to NZ$675 for non-</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span style="padding-left: 36px;"></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">30</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Te
Puni Kokiri (ministry of </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> Development), Te Taura Whiri I Te Reo </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> (</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> Language
Commission), and Statistics New Zealand surveyed a sample of 2,441 </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> adults about </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> language
proficiency, acquisition, use, and attitudes.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span style="padding-left: 36px;"></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">31</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">The
census was based on </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">unaided self-rating assessment</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> and
includes proxy ratings for those under age 15 (He Kupenga Hao I Te Reo </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> 2000).</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span style="padding-left: 36px;"></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">32</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">In
New Zealand, Kennedy (cited in Spolsky 1990) sees a kind of transfer of conscience from the campaign against South African apartheid to the recognition of the failure to grant full rights to the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span style="padding-left: 36px;"></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">33</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Professors
Bruce Biggs and Patrick Hohepa at Auckland University and Professor Timoti K</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">â</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">retu (later first </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> Language
Commissioner) and others at Waikato University were important in this.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span style="padding-left: 36px;"></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">34</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">The
Silent Way, a method proposed by the educator Caleb Gattegno (1976), used colored rods for the teaching of mathematics and languages. It allowed new language learners to listen during their early lessons rather than, in accordance with the dictates of the
Audiolingual Method then current, demanding that they speak aloud from the first day (Rei 1998).</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span style="padding-left: 36px;"></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">35</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">The
first </span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">w</span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">â</span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">nanga
reo</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">, Rei 1998 reports, was held in 1979 at the first </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> University, Te W</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">â</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">nanga
o Raukawa. A </span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">w</span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">â</span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">nanga
reo </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">‘</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> language college</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">’</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> is
a language immersion program for between 50 and 100 adult students, lasting a week and held on a marae. In the early days, the students selected knew little if any </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">.
Courses continue to be offered in many parts of the country. While a national movement, there is strong emphasis on local iwi traditions and customs. The</span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">w</span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">â</span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">nanga</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> are
now conducted by universities, teachers</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">’</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">colleges, and tribes, but they remain basically a grassroots development.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span style="padding-left: 36px;"></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">36</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Language
nests are reported in Australia and Hawaii. A bill (S. 91, the Native American Languages Act Amendments Act for 2001) introduced in the U.S. Senate proposed the establishment of Native American language nests.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">37</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Under
the regulations, someone starting a Kura Kaupapa </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> must show that there is no state school conveniently available offering the same kind
of education. In a </span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">kura</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">, </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> must
be the principal language of instruction, and there must be an elected board of trustees legally responsible for the administration of the school.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span style="padding-left: 36px;"></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">38</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">The
study identified a number of factors explaining this, among them the quality of teacher preparation, the limited time available, and the low priority for </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> language
classes in the school timetable, the extra roles a </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> language teacher is expected to play, and the acceptability within the youth culture
of using the </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> language.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span style="padding-left: 36px;"></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">39</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> language
policy, but not New Zealand language policy. In the late 1980s, a coalition of interests attempted to emulate the success of those who helped establish a multilingual Australian language policy (Lo Bianco 1987). In response to their demand, the Department
of Education commissioned a report on language policy, published in 1992. Waite 1992 analyzed the principles on which a national language policy might be based, and ended with a set of recommendations of the form of such a policy. It fell essentially on deaf
ears, and a couple of years later, senior officials in the Ministry of Education knew nothing about it.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span style="padding-left: 36px;"></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">40</span></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15"> </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">The
name of the Commission was subsequently changed to Te Taura Whiri i Te Reo </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">, in order to avoid the borrowed English word </span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">komihana</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span style="padding-left: 36px;"></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">41</span></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15"> </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">The
Inventory of </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> Language Services (Te Puni Kokiri 2000) describes five activities undertaken by the Department for Courts in the Ministry
of Justice. The first was the issue of 54 court publications in </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> by the Waitangi Tribunal. The second was the provision of a court translation
service whenever 14 days</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">’</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> notice is given. Special allowances are paid to staff with strong capabilities in </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">. </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> training
is available for those who wish to learn the language. Some court offices have bilingual signs.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span style="padding-left: 36px;"></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">42</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">M</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">î</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">ria
Simpson, who served as a member of the Commission from 1994 until 2002, is reported to be</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">loved by many and feared by more for her insistence
that people use correct grammar and diction when they speak and write in </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> or English. It is perilous to slip up in </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> or
English within her earshot, she has no qualms in correcting careless users of language</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> (</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Language
Commission, press release, 31 May 2002).</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span style="padding-left: 36px;"></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">43</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">The
term </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">strategy</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> replaced </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">policy</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> in
internal Te Puni Kokiri papers between March and June 1998.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span style="padding-left: 36px;"></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">44</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">The
New Zealand Digital Library is building a collection of historic newspapers published primarily for a </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Mâori</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> audience between 1842 and 1932.
See <a href="http://www.nzdl.org/niupepa">http://www.nzdl.org/niupepa</a>.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span style="padding-left: 36px;"></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">45</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">In
the past few years, the issue of the radio spectrum under the Treaty of Waitangi has been before the Tribunal on a number of occasions.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span style="padding-left: 36px;"></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">46</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">The
paper written for the New Zealand Treasury on language revitalization (Grin & Vaillancourt 1998) went into some detail on broadcasting at the specific request of Te M</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">â</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">nga
Paho.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span style="padding-left: 36px;"></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">47</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Even
a fairly radical proposal like the Universal Declaration of Linguistic Rights assumes bilingual proficiency in the mother tongue and the national language.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span style="padding-left: 36px;"></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">48</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Spolsky
1999, however, points out three ways in which this may be overstated. First, the Hebrew that was revived was quite unlike the earlier versions, so that in fact (Spolsky & Shohamy 2000a) it is hard to make Hebrew fit the RLS model. Second, Hebrew revitalization
was at the cost of many other languages, including highly significant Jewish languages like Yiddish, Ladino, and many varieties of Judeo-Arabic. Third, Hebrew itself is now working out divisions of functional distribution with English (Spolsky & Shohamy 2001)
and other languages.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span style="padding-left: 36px;"></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">49</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">See
O Riagáin 1997, 2001.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span style="padding-left: 36px;"></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">50</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">I
myself have used the term </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">“</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">diglossia</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">”</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> for
a functional distribution, contrasting the oral use of Navajo with the written use of English on the Navajo Reservation. The term clearly covers many possibilities.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span style="padding-left: 36px;"></span><span class="s9" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="bumpedFont15">51</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Another
term often used loosely. Fishman 1972 made clear that domains (a combination of social location, role relations, and topics) needed to be reestablished empirically in each community.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"> </span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15" style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);">References</span></span></p>
<p class="s8" style="margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"></span></span> </span></p>
<p class="s13" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 36px;">
<span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Belich, James (1986). </span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">The New Zealand Wars</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">.
Auckland: Auckland University Press.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s13" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 36px;">
<span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">––– (1996). </span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">Making peoples: A history of
the New Zealanders from Polynesian settlement to the end of the nineteenth century</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">. Auckland: Allen Lane and Penguin.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s13" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 36px;">
<span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Bell, Allan (1999). Styling the other to define the self: A study in New Zealand identity making. </span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">Journal
of Sociolinguistics </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">3:523–41.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s13" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 36px;">
<span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Benton, Nena (1989). Education, language decline and language revitalization: The case of Maori in New Zealand. </span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">Language
and Education</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">, 3:65–82.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s13" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 36px;">
<span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Benton, Richard A. (1981). </span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">The flight of
the Amokura: Oceanic languages and formal education in the Pacific</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">. Wellington: New Zealand Council for Educational Research.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s13" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 36px;">
<span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">––– (1991). </span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">The Maori language: Dying or
reviving.</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">(Alumni-in Residence Working Papers Series.) Honolulu: East-West Center.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s13" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 36px;">
<span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">–––, & Benton, Nena (2001). RLS in Aotearoa/New Zealand 1989-1999. In Joshua A. Fishman (ed.),</span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">Can
threatened languages be saved?</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">, 422–49. Clevedon, Avon: Multilingual Matters.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s13" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 36px;">
<span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Best, Elsdon (1923). </span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">The Maori school of
learning: Its objects, methods, and</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s14" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 108px;">
<span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">ceremonial</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">. Wellington: W.A.G. Skinner.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s13" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 36px;">
<span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Bourdieu, Pierre (1991). </span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">Language and symbolic
power</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">. Cambridge: Polity Press.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s13" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 36px;">
<span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Bourhis, Richard Y. (2001). Reversing language shift in Quebec. In Joshua A. Fishman (ed.), </span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">Can
threatened languages be saved?,</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> 101–41. Clevedon, Avon: Multilingual Matters.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s13" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 36px;">
<span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Buck, Peter (1958). </span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">The coming of the Maori.</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> 2nd
ed. Wellington: Maori Purposes Board.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s13" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 36px;">
<span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Chrisp, Steven (1997). Diglossia: A theoretical framework for the revitalization of the Maori Language. </span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">He
Pukenga Korero Ngahuru 2</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">(2):35–42.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s13" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 36px;">
<span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Colenso, William (1872). </span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">Willie</span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">’</span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">s
first English book, written for young Maoris who can read their own Maori tongue, and who wish to learn the English language</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">. Wellington: G. Didsbury.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s13" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 36px;">
<span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Cooper, Robert L. (1989). </span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">Language planning
and social change</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s13" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 36px;">
<span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Dorian, Nancy (1987). The value of language maintenance efforts which are unlikely to succeed.</span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">International
Journal of the Sociology of Language</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">68: 57–67.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s13" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 36px;">
<span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Errington, Joseph (2001). Colonial linguistics. </span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">Annual
Review of Anthropology </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">30:19–39.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s13" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 36px;">
<span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Fenton, Sabine (2001). </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">‘</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Possess
Yourselves of the Soil</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">’</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15"> : Interpreting in Early New Zealand. </span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">The
Translator</span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">7:1–18.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s13" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 36px;">
<span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Fishman, Joshua A. (1964). Language maintenance and language shift as fields of enquiry. </span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">Linguistics </span></span><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">9:32–70.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="s13" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 36px;">
<span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">––– (1970). </span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">Sociolinguistics: A brief
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<span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"><span class="s3"><span class="bumpedFont15">Woolard, Kathryn A. (1998). Introduction: Language ideology as a field of inquiry. In Bambi B. Schieffelin et al. (eds.), </span></span><span class="s4" style="font-style: italic;"><span class="bumpedFont15">Language
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<span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"> </span></p>
<p class="s5" style="text-indent: 0px; margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto;">----</span></p>
<div style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto;"><span style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);"> <br>
Professor Ghil'ad Zuckermann, D.Phil. (Oxon.)<br>
<br>
Chair of Linguistics and Endangered Languages</span>
<div><span style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);">School of Humanities<br>
The University of Adelaide<br>
Adelaide SA 5005, Australia<br>
<br>
<a href="mailto:ghilad.zuckermann@adelaide.edu.au" x-apple-data-detectors="true" x-apple-data-detectors-type="link" x-apple-data-detectors-result="0">ghilad.zuckermann@adelaide.edu.au</a><br>
<br>
Office: <a href="tel:+61%208%208313%205247" x-apple-data-detectors="true" x-apple-data-detectors-type="telephone" x-apple-data-detectors-result="1">+61 8 8313 5247</a> <br>
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<a href="http://www.zuckermann.org/" x-apple-data-detectors="true" x-apple-data-detectors-type="link" x-apple-data-detectors-result="3">http://www.zuckermann.org/</a><br>
<a href="http://adelaide.academia.edu/zuckermann/" x-apple-data-detectors="true" x-apple-data-detectors-type="link" x-apple-data-detectors-result="4">http://adelaide.academia.edu/zuckermann/</a><br>
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<br>
Author of Revival Linguistics, Oxford University Press, forthcoming<br>
Author of Israelit Safa Yafa (Israeli - A Beautiful Language), Am Oved, 2008,<a href="http://www.zuckermann.org/israelit.html" x-apple-data-detectors="true" x-apple-data-detectors-type="link" x-apple-data-detectors-result="7">http://www.zuckermann.org/israelit.html</a><br>
Author of Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew, Palgrave Macmillan, 2003, <a href="http://www.zuckermann.org/enrichment.html" x-apple-data-detectors="true" x-apple-data-detectors-type="link" x-apple-data-detectors-result="8">http://www.zuckermann.org/enrichment.html</a><br>
Second Author of the Israeli Tingo, Keren, 2011<br>
Editor of Burning Issues in Afro-Asiatic Linguistics, Cambridge Scholars, 2012 <a href="http://www.c-s-p.org/Flyers/Burning-Issues-in-Afro-Asiatic-Linguistics1-4438-4070-X.htm" x-apple-data-detectors="true" x-apple-data-detectors-type="link" x-apple-data-detectors-result="9">http://www.c-s-p.org/Flyers/Burning-Issues-in-Afro-Asiatic-Linguistics1-4438-4070-X.htm</a><br>
Editor of Jewish Language Contact, Special Issue of the International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 2014</span></div>
</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto;"><span style="background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0);">Co-editor of Endangered Words, Signs of Revival, AustraLex, 2014</span></div>
</div>
<div style="-webkit-text-size-adjust: auto;"><br>
On 10 Sep 2014, at 1:21 am, "Nick Thieberger" <<a href="mailto:thien@unimelb.edu.au">thien@unimelb.edu.au</a>> wrote:<br>
<br>
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<div dir="ltr"><br>
<div class="gmail_quote">---------- Forwarded message ----------<br>
From: <b class="gmail_sendername">Petra M. Autio</b> <span dir="ltr"><<a href="mailto:petra.m.autio@gmail.com">petra.m.autio@gmail.com</a>></span><br>
Date: 9 September 2014 15:59<br>
Subject: Language nests in NZ<br>
To: <a href="mailto:ASAONET@listserv.uic.edu">ASAONET@listserv.uic.edu</a><br>
<br>
<br>
<div>
<div>Dear all, </div>
<div><br>
</div>
<div>Would someone be able to suggest analyses and scholarly desciptions of the so called 'language nest' activities among New Zealand Maori and perhaps Hawaii or elsewhere in the Pacific, where the method has been applied? I am relatively ignorant of the subject
but I have understood that the method was first used for language revival in NZ and has since then been applied in several places around the world. I would need some comparitive examples for a project that is being planned in a very different ethnographic
context.</div>
<div><br>
</div>
<div>With thanks in advance, best wishes, </div>
<div><br>
</div>
<div>Petra Autio</div>
<div><br>
</div>
<div><br>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
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