statives with Instr. and Loc. affixes in Dakotan. (fwd)
Koontz John E
John.Koontz at Colorado.EDU
Thu Mar 25 15:03:45 UTC 1999
Here's a long one from Constantine Xmelnitsky!
Email address: mosind at yahoo.com
Dear John Koontz:
I try to find the answers (at least for me) to your
questions about the existence of impersonal stative
verbs with ka- instrumental affix and with locatives.
Also I cite below the Rigg's and Boas' perception of
stative verbs as impersonal.
--- Koontz John E <John.Koontz at Colorado.EDU> wrote:
"The occasional examples of ba- and mu= instrumentals
that have turned up in Bob's work and now Hahn's,
should be ample evidence that "impersonal" statives
are not restricted to na=. That makes me wonder about
cases where ga- indicates action by wind or current."
---------------------------------------
I looked it up in the Buechel's Lakota-English
Dictionary, 1970 and found several examples of the
"stativization" of active verbs when the
agent is a wind / wagon moving / horseback (ka-
instrumental). As Buechel uses freely "v.n." label for
active verbs I selected a sample of verbs where
the stativeness is expressed more or less explicitly --
with A1 wa- and S1 (P1?) ma- affixes.
Two words about the topic:
1. The possibility of regarding the stative verbs as
impersonal ones was pointed out by Riggs, 1853, and
Boas & Deloria, 1941:
Riggs, Dakota Grammar, 19.2.b (p.11):
"They [objective pronouns] are also used with neuter
verbs and adjectives; as, yazaN, to be sick, mayazaN, I
am sick; was^te, good, mawas^te, I am good. The English
idiom requires that we should here render these
pronouns by the nominative case, although it would seem
that in the mind of Dakotas, the verb or adjective is
used IMPERSONALLY, and governs the pronoun in the
objective".
B&D, Dakota Grammar, p.2: "As in many American
languages the object of the transitive verb coincides
with the subject of the neutral verb. In Dakota this
may perhaps be so understood that the state is
expressed in reference to the personal pronoun "being
strong is in reference to me"; i.e., "I am strong".
Boas & Deloria ("Dakota Grammar", 1941) discuss
impersonal verbs with instrumental prefixes in a
separate paragraph 46, pp.47-8: "Verbs with
instrumental prefixes are often used in such a way that
an indefinite actor is understood, for instance
-swa to be unraveled;
kaswa' to unravel by striking but also: (long
use) made it unravelled,
i.e., it is ragged.
(-)suta' to be hard;
(ma)ka'suta he made (me) hard (callous) by
strkining, but also:
(circumstances) have hardened me.
Some of these verbs never appear with active pronouns,
for instance
-ks^ec^a to be cramped by spasms;
(ma)yu'ks^ec^a (I) am bent by cramps (cramps bend
me).
The implied subject is always of a most general
character and the forms correspond to our IMPERSONAL
verbs."
[The rest of a paragraph will be listed below]
2. The velar palatalization after S2 affix ni- is
normally prohibited in the stative verbs in Dakotan
(kha'tA "hot"; nikha'tA, S2-hot).
However /k/ in ka- affix seems to be palatalized after
S2 ni-:
Buechel explicitly states palatalized forms for
kaki'z^A, to suffer (nic^a'kiz^A), and kas^?iN', to be
bent toward the inside (nic^a's^?iN), so we could
generalize that ka- > c^a- shift is universal in this
set of verbs.
3. Can we suppose that there is an analogy between
"passive" construction like
ma-?o'=pi (P1-hit pl.), "I'm wounded", where the
agent is insubstantial/unknown and our examples, where
the agent is inanimate (wind/wagon) or dummy ("it") and
cannot be marked with plural enclitic =pi ?
Maybe there was a gradual lexicalization of the
"stativizing" verbs listed below as Buechel shows the
possible stages:
i. c^(h)aNpa'gmiyaN ma-ka'-xwa (wagon
P1-by_strike-be_sleepy) "wagon shakes me to sleep",
"I'm sleepy from shaking in a wagon" p.276.
(Though what about the ban on inanimate actors
except natural forces?)
ii. [thate' ma-ka'c^ekc^eke (wind P1-stagger)] ->
thate' was^?a'ke=lo oN ma-ka'c^ekc^eke=lo (wind
strong because-of S1-be_staggering) p.271.
iii. ma-ka'huNhuNza (S1-be_wagon-shaken) p.274.
--------------------------------------------------
Now the verbs from Buechel, 1970:
p.270-1
kac^aN', v.a. To shake, clear by shaking, to sift.
Wakac^aN.
-- v.n. To shiver. O'blula wanic^e c^(h)a
uNka'c^aNpi kte lo.(There's no roof/waterproof so we'll
shiver) [also na(ma-)c^aNc^aN, to shiver, tremble,
p.342]
p.271
? kac^aN'c^aN, v.n. To trot, as a horse. --v.a. red.
To clean by shaking,as in sifting; to shake.
Waka'c^aNc^aN.
p.271
kac^e'kA, v.a. To strike and make stagger.
Waka'c^eka.
kac^e'kc^ekA, v.t. and v.i.red. To stagger.
Maka'c^ekc^eka.
Thate was^?akelo oN makac^ekc^ekelo. Bl. (on
account of wind...)
MahuNkes^ni c^(h)a makac^ekc^eke. D.114 (I'm
sickly so...)
p.272
kagle'pa, v.a. To make one vomit by striking on the
back, as one in whose throat smth got stuck.
-- v.n. To vomit on account of dizziness caused
by rapid circular motions. Makaglepa.
p.274
kahuN'huNza, 1) v.a. To shake, make shake by
striking, as a tree, or as the wind does trees.
Waka'huNhuNza.
2) v.n. To be shaken as on a wagon, rocking chair
etc. Maka'huNhuNza.
p.290
kas^kaN's^kaN, v.n. To be shaking, being shaken up,
as when sitting on a
heavy wagon, i.e. bumping/hitting.
Maka's^kaNs^kaN. Same as kahuNhuNza.
[also, p.358: nas^kaN's^kaN, v.n. To be shaking,
trembling, as on an automobile when the enginge starts.
ka-... = slow bumping, na-... =rapid motion]
p.280
kaki'z^a, v.n. To suffer, be afflicted. Makakiz^a,
nic^akiz^a.
Note that there is a velar palatalization after P2
affix, specific to active verbs. There's no active
counterpart for kakiz^A, save kaz^a (wa-kaz^a),
"to split a little, to make gape" (p.278).
p.282
kalo'c^(h)iN, v.n. To be hungry from being shaken
up, as from having ridden on a wagon or on a horseback.
Maka'loc^(h)iN.
[Cf. loc^hiN', lowa'c^hiN, v.a. want food, be hungry]
p.288
kapu'za, 1) v.a. To make smth dry by shaking it in
the wind. Waka'puza.
2) v.n. To become dry by being shaken by the
wind, as wash. BigTurkey used this word also for voting
"dry" for the state of S.D.
kasaN', 1) v.n. To turn white, as paint does from
rain.
2) v.a. To whiten by scraping. Waka'saN.
kaska', v.a. To bleach by striking/dragging.
Waka'ska.
-- v.n. To become clear, to clear off, as clouds,
smoke etc.
p.292
kas^tu's^ta, v.n. To be tired from riding.
Makas^tus^ta. Bl.
Cf. p.468: s^tus^ta, "adj." Soft, as the flesh of
animals when hard chased, wanting flavor.
kas^?iN', v.n. To bend backwards, to be bent toward
the inside (concave), like the back of a sway-back
horse, or a pug nose. Makas^?iN.
Nic^as^?iN.
p.295
kauN'ka, v.a. To cut down, fell e.g. tress; to
strike down e.g. persons; to blow down, as the wind
does trees. WakauNka.
-- kauN'kaka, v.n. To jolted / bounced up and down,
as in a wagon. kauNkaka ye-ma-ya.
kawaN'kaka [? waNka up], v.n. same as kauNkaka.
KawaNkaka i-ma-yaye.
kawa's^?aka, v.n. (of was^?aka [wa-ma-s^?akA],
strong). To be made strong by packing / carrying loads.
Makawas^?aka.
kawa'tuk(h)a, v.n. [wa(-ma-)tukha, (I'm) tired] To
be tired from long riding on a wagon / on a horseback,
by reason of shaking (ka-).
S^uNkakaN yaNkapi / c^(h)aNpagmiyaNpi
makawatuk(h)a.
p.296
kazaN', 1) v.a. To hurt, to make feel pain by
striking; to render motionless. WakazaN. HiNyete
kazaNpi, Bruised shoulders.
2) v.n. To fill up, have the sense of
fullness. ...
C^(h)aNte (ma)kazaN, To heart burn.
Note also the Buechel's examples:
kagmigma, (make) roll; kaxmuN (cause to) make noise;
c^(h)aNpagmiyaN makaxwa (I'm sleepy from shaking in a
wagon)
thate c^ha wowapi kaxwokelo (the book was carried away
by the wind)
I couldn't find explicit "v.a./v.n." entry for pa-
instrumental derivatives
at Buechel's.
---------------------------------------------------
Paragraph 46 of Boas & Deloria "Dakota Grammar",
pp.47-8:
..2. Most of the verbs that appear both in active and
impersonal forms have the prefix ka- whis expresses in
these cases an indeterminate outer force.
is^tiN'ma to be asleep,
(ma)ka'is^tiNme he puts me to sleep; I have
fallen asleep;
xaN it is a sore;
(ma)ka'xaN (I) have a sore (from working with a
tool);
(ma)yu'xaN (I) have a sore (as from rubbing of a
strap; also
(wa)ka'xaN (I) cause it to be sore by striking;
hiNta to be swept clear,
wana' kahiN'ta he has now swept it, (the clouds)
have been swept away;
homni to turn on an arc,
(ma)ka'homni he turned (me) around; (I) have
changed;
c^haNte't?iNza to be stout hearted (c^haNte' heart,
t?iN'za stiff),
c^haNte'(ma)ka't?iNza he makes (me) fearless; (I
am) fearless;
t?a to be dead,
(ma)ka't?a he killed (me) by striking; (I) was
stunned;
s^pu to unfasten,
kas^pu' he knocked it loose, it became loose;
c^he'ya to cry,
(ma)ka'c^heya he made (me) cry by striking, (I
am) crying (on account of cold, etc.)
Also with ka-:
kauN'spe to be world-wise (time has taught);
kahuN' to have a gash;
kahuN'huNza to be shaken up, he swings it to and
fro;
kabla'za to be ripped;
ic^a'thaN to be in touch;
kathe'pa to be worn down;
kasu'ta to be hardened;
kaswa' to ragged at the edge;
kaslu'ta the tongue lolls;
kasna' (leaves) drop off;
oma'kasni I feel a cold draft;
oka's^kaN to be forced to move;
pha'we kas^u'z^a his nose bleeds;
phehiN' kaz^uN' hair falls out;
phehiN' kala'la hair dangles all over (kala' to
spill dry materials);
kac^ekc^eka to stagger;
kaksa' to be cut off;
kaks^i'ks^iz^a to be collapsed, bent in all
directions (ks^iz^a to be bent at a joint);
kakhu'kha to be worn out;
kag^aN' to be unkempt;
kag^aN' it opens;
kaxwa' to be sleepy after a long ride;
kaxi'c^a to be aroused out of sleep;
kaxle'c^a to have a cut in the scalp;
kaxli' to be mired (xli to touch slimy
material);
kaxc^i' it is torn off
wo- is used often in resultative forms when moving
water is understood as actor:
woz^a'z^a to get clean (in a river, by rain);
iwo'phaNyaN (adv.) grass is beaten down by rain,
hail
(ika'phaNyaN by wind)
In other cases it is rather action from a distance:
woi'tomni he gets dizzy by being bumped about;
(kai'tomni he gets dizzy by being turned);
iwo'to to bump oneself;
woxta'ka to be bumped into (ic^a'xtak-phic^as^ni
to be touchy)
pa- is used rarely expressing a resultative:
pawiN'z^a to be bent by pushing;
ipa'sli to be squeezed against by pushing;
paglo'ka it is dislocated (a joint)
yu-:
iyu'titaN it fits tightly (-titaN to exert force
on);
yus^iN's^iN to be wrinkled;
yus^ki' to be wrinkled, gathered in folds;
yugmu'za to be shrivelled up (skin in old age),
active only as adverb;
yux?i' it is warty, irregularly rough;
yuxa'xa to be curly (kaxa' iya'ya it gets
knotted);" (end of citation)
-----------------------------------------------------
<J.Koontz: I believe there are other examples with
locative prefixes.
There is an interesting construction in Dakotan,
formally a stative verb:
a- Loc."on" + X, where X=noun/verb, meaning that
1. X acts on smb/ smb undergoes X
2. the surface of patient undergoes the proccess X
The paradigm of such verbs is usual:
I... ama'-X We... uNka'-X pi
I&thou... uNka'-X
Thou... ani'-X Ye... ani'-X pi
He... a-X They.. a-X pi
1. X acts on smb.:
a-ma'-wetu, a-ma'-bloketu, a-ma'-waniyetu, I have
reached spring-/summer-/winter-time.
a-ma'-yaNpa, I spent a sleepless night and was found
sleepless by the dawn (aN'pa be dawn);
a-ma'-wiyaya, I didn't return home before night
(wi'iyaya sunset);
2. the surface of patient undergoes the process X:
a-ma'-c^hu, it dews on me (c^hu dew);
a-ma'-c^hag^a, I'm covered with ice (c^ha'g^a ice);
oN's^tiNmapihiN ac^hax'-ma-su(su), little ice drops
formed on my eyelids;
a-ma'-haNzi, I'm overshadowed (ohaN'zi shadow);
a-ma'-mag^az^u, It rains on me (mag^a'z^u rain);
a-ma'xpiya, it's clouded (maxpi'ya cloud, heaven);
a-o'-ma-z^aNz^an, it's light on me (oz^aN'z^aN
light);
a-ma'-xeyuNka, frost acts on me, I'm frosted;
a-ma'-wa, I'm covered with snow (wa' snow);
There are two stative verbs with Loc-Dat- combination:
a-(ma)-ki-sni, to recover from illness/anger
(? sni', cool);
a-(ma)-ki-x?aN, to be without food, starve
(x?aN =?. x?aNyaN be near death / very tired;
wic^(h)o'x(?)aNx(?)aN, illness, if recall it
right).
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