[lg policy] book notice: Linguistics at School: Language Awareness in Primary and Secondary Education

[Harold Schiffman]

 Linguistics at School


Announced at http://linguistlist.org/issues/21/21-295.html

EDITORS: Denham, Kristin; Lobeck, Anne
TITLE: Linguistics at School
SUBTITLE: Language Awareness in Primary and Secondary Education
PUBLISHER: Cambridge University Press
YEAR: 2010

Pia Sundqvist, Department of English, Faculty of Arts and Education, Karlstad
University.

SUMMARY

''Linguistics at School'' is a volume about the current state of research and
practice regarding the integration of linguistics into primary and secondary
school curricula. It is a carefully edited (Kristin Denham and Anne Lobeck)
collection of 23 chapters that all, in different ways, relate to language
awareness (first language/mother tongue) in primary and secondary
education. Ray
Jackendoff contributes with the foreword, in which he highlights three
themes in
the book: first, the importance of validating students' own language and/or
dialects; second, the value of learning about language by playing with
it, using
metalinguistic activities (cf. Brown 2004: 4); and third, the fact that
linguistics may be applied not only to language arts, but also to other school
subjects.

In their introduction, Denham and Lobeck matter-of-factly declare that
linguistics is not comprehensively integrated into teacher education (at least
not in the United States) and it is, therefore, largely absent in the K-12
curriculum. Furthermore, the editors notice that their book is evidence of the
fact that the tide is starting to turn thanks to linguists' increased
involvement in education. They state that the target audience of
''Linguistics at
School'' consists of linguists, teachers, and teacher educators, or anyone else
who might be interested in the integration of linguistic knowledge into
education. The focus of the book is on various successful ways to improve
education about language and language awareness; it is in this respect that
linguists can make a difference. Most of the chapters relate to schools in the
US, but there are also some examples from other countries, such as the UK,
Australia, Bulgaria, and Russia.

The book has three parts. Part I is called ''Linguistics from the top-down:
encouraging institutional change'' and contains chapters 1-8. In part II,
''Linguistics from the bottom-up: encouraging classroom change''
(chapters 9-15),
all contributions deal with projects where the approach is the opposite
(bottom-up) to that of part I (top-down). Finally, part III of the book is
labeled ''Vignettes: voices from the classroom'' (chapters 16-23) and includes
texts by school teachers, all of whom have embraced the idea of using a
linguistically informed method of teaching, often inspired by and/or in
collaboration with some renowned linguist(s), i.e., one (or more) of the
contributors in the first two parts of the volume. Below, I summarize
each chapter.

Part 1

Chapter 1: ''Ideologies of language, art, and science'' (Edwin
Battistella). The
aim of Battistella's chapter is to explore why linguists have failed to manage
what he calls ''the misperceptions about linguistics'' (p. 13) and,
furthermore,
how the scientific field of linguistics has failed to manage its relation to
culture and to the goals of education. He also compares public perceptions of
linguistics with those of two other fields, namely biology and visual arts.

Chapter 2: ''Bringing linguistics into the school curriculum: not one less''
(Wayne O'Neil). The focus of O'Neil's chapter is on introducing formal
linguistics into the English-language curriculum, in particular with regard to
generative grammar. Thus, he sums up the (hi)story about ''Project English'', a
top-down project funded by the US Office of Education in the 1960s that,
according to O'Neil, brought an end to what may have been the last,
best attempt
to bring formal linguistics into general education in the US. Project English
was a failure and O'Neil concludes that linguists who wish to see their field
enter the schools should carefully consider any queries from school
practitioners that come their way.

Chapter 3: ''How linguistics has influenced schools in England''
(Richard Hudson).
This chapter is about recent changes in the education system of England, where
all the changes can be traced to the influence of linguistics; Hudson argues
that ''an extreme reaction against arid grammar-teaching in the 1960s and 1970s
produced a language-teaching vacuum which linguistics has filled'' (p. 35). The
changes he talks about are supported by teachers as well as by official
legislation and the most successful example is the A-level course in English
Language, ALEL. One reason for ALEL's popularity is claimed to be its focus on
texts that both students and teachers can relate to. The focus on texts is in
contrast to what linguists traditionally focus on (i.e., the language system).

Chapter 4: ''Supporting the teaching of knowledge about language in Scottish
schools'' (Graeme Trousdale). Trousdale's chapter deals with the current
situation in Scotland regarding the teaching of knowledge about language (KAL)
in schools, and the increasing collaboration between linguists working at
universities, educationalists, Scottish writers, and, most importantly, school
teachers (mainly English teachers at secondary level). One outcome of this
collaborative work is the establishment of CLASS (the Committee for Language
Awareness in Scottish Schools) and A Curriculum for Excellence, ACfE.
Another is
the LILT (Language Into Languages Teaching) project, which allows for
cross-curricular reinforcement of particular linguistic terms and concepts
relevant to the study of the first, second and other languages of Scotland's
pupils. A third outcome is a Continuing Professional Development (CPD) course
developed at and offered by the University of Edinburgh which, among other
things, has led to tailored online KAL resources for in-service teachers.

Chapter 5: ''Envisioning linguistics in secondary education: an Australian
exemplar'' (Jean Mulder). In Australia, more specifically in Victoria, the
subject Victorian Certificate of Education English Language (VCE English
Language) is the result of collaborative work between university-based
linguists
and secondary school English teachers working from the top-down to introduce
this new subject. ''Traditional'' grammar was abandoned from the English
curriculum in Australia in the 1960s, which led to a void that modern
descriptive linguistics has filled. The term grammar has been replaced by two
terms that work very well: KAL and language awareness. Traditionally
grammar was
taught and learned in an environment that was devoid of context. Now, in short,
Mulder describes that teaching and learning start with a close study of texts
(cf. chapter 3, the ALEL in England) where teachers gradually introduce
metalinguistic terms and linguistic concepts within the context of a particular
aspect of language use in the texts. KAL is viewed as a means for taking
language apart in order for learners to see the ways in which people
communicate
effectively. Both bottom-up and top-down processes are stressed and it is
concluded that an effective collaboration between university-based
linguists and
teachers demands that both parts are able to position themselves as both
learners and experts.

Chapter 6: ''Linguistics and educational standards: the California experience''
(Carol Lord & Sharon Klein). In this chapter, Lord and Klein provide
an overview
of the educational standards in the US and then focus on the situation in
California. It is claimed that one of the ways in which linguistics
can be woven
into the school curriculum is by helping to shape the structure of teacher
preparation programs. Moreover, the authors stress the need for linguists to
learn from the experience of educators and classroom practitioners
(which echoes
Mulder's suggestion in chapter 5).

Chapter 7: ''Developing sociolinguistic curricula that help teachers meet
standards'' (Jeffrey Reaser). Also in this chapter, the author points out the
need for linguists to work in collaboration with classroom practitioners. The
aim of the chapter is to examine efforts of encouraging teachers to include
sociolinguistic materials in their classroom by creating materials that help
them meet the prescribed requirements of their state's (or district's) standard
course of study. Two curricula are presented in the chapter; first, the high
school curriculum that accompanies the PBS documentary ''Do you speak
American?''
(DYSA) and second, the dialect awareness curriculum ''Voices of North
Carolina'',
which is aimed at 8th-grade students. DYSA is an online resource (a three-hour
long travelogue, starring Robert MacNeil) on language variation in the USA and,
according to the author, an ideal resource for collaboration between social
studies and English. The Voices of North Carolina curriculum was
created so that
it dovetailed with learning objectives of the standard course of study for
social studies. Reaser concludes that both these curricula are sociolinguistics
programs and they ''will only be embraced when teachers view materials as
beneficial to their students and useful to their jobs'' (p. 105).

Chapter 8: ''Linguistic development in children's writing: changing classroom
pedagogies'' (Debra Myhil). In this chapter, Myhil opens up by pointing out a
methodological flaw: Research over the past fifty years has come to the
conclusion that grammar teaching fails to prove its role as beneficial
or useful
in writing instruction. However, in these research studies, Myhil claims,
researchers have not distinguished between (a) studies which analyze the impact
of formal grammar teaching in which pupils take a separate grammar course and
(b) studies which consider how writing instruction that draws attention to
grammatical concepts impacts upon learners' writing (see p.108). The chapter
argues that the place of linguistics in the writing classroom is
twofold: (1) to
provide learners with metalinguistic understanding to enable them to become
confident writers and (2) to provide teachers with an understanding of how to
assess learners' development in writing and their instructional needs. Myhil
discusses how to work with lexical choice and sentence structures in students'
texts and the chapter points to the potential value of using linguistic
perspectives in the writing classroom. Moreover, the chapter provides annotated
writing samples. In closing the author observes that ''changing classroom
pedagogies requires an acknowledgement of the significance of assured
linguistic
subject knowledge and strategic action to address it'' (p. 120).

Part 2

Chapter 9: ''From cold shoulder to funded welcome: Lessons from the trenches of
dialectally diverse classrooms'' (Rebecca S. Wheeler). Chapter 9 is basically a
piece of teaching methodological advice about how to better succeed in teaching
Standard English, especially in dialectally diverse classrooms. The idea is
first to help students become aware of the fact that their vernacular language
is rule-governed and systematic. In order to accomplish this, linguistic
expertise in the classroom is needed. Equipped with the insight that students
are following grammar patterns of their language variety (e.g. African American
English), teachers can lead their students in critical thinking to foster the
learning of Standard English grammar. The use of three strategies is suggested
and explained in detail (for example by use of samples of student work):
scientific method, comparison and contrast, and code switching as
meta-cognition.

Chapter 10: ''Positioning linguists as learners in K-12 schools'' (Long Peng &
Jean Ann). In the present chapter, the authors emphasize that teachers rarely
find the time or mental energy to reflect upon their own teaching, neither do
they have much time to evaluate teaching materials or students' responses to
what happens in the classroom. In Peng and Ann's project, which is set in an
elementary school in New York, the teachers were given the time to reflect upon
their practice and, eventually, they defined the linguistic issues they saw as
important to solve. These issues turned out to be identical to those of the
linguists and dealt with, for example, allophones versus phonemes,
word order in
the Spanish and English noun phrase, bilingual education, the tense system of
English, and the influence of L1 on L2.

Chapter 11. ''Fostering teacher change: effective professional development for
sociolinguistic diversity'' (Julie Sweetland). Sweetland's chapter is about
strategies for change of teaching practices in the classroom. The
first strategy
discussed is about linking desired innovations to existing concerns and
practices. In Sweetland's project, she incorporated linguistic awareness
activities for both students and teachers into language arts instruction
(4th-6th grade). The goal was to improve student writing; this part connects
with chapters 9 and 10. The second strategy was to treat negative language
attitudes as a baseline, not a barrier. Beforehand, no teachers looked at the
vernacular as a potential source of strength and that practice can change only
after attitudes have been ameliorated. Thus, Sweetland, in reference to Guskey
(2002), argues that it is not professional development per se that changes
teachers' attitudes and beliefs, but rather their experience of successful
implementation. The third and final strategy has to do with capitalizing on the
influence of classroom practice; that is, hands-on experience in a classroom
context has an even greater impact on ameliorating negative teacher attitudes,
than just exposure to new information. The central finding of the chapter is
that ''teachers who implemented dialect-based instruction internalized
pluralist
attitudes to a much greater degree than did teachers who only passively engaged
with the descriptive perspective on language and this offers a challenge to
scholars concerned with issues of sociolinguistic diversity and educational
equity'' (p. 173).

Chapter 12: ''On promoting linguistics literacy: bringing language
science to the
English classroom'' (Maya Honda, Wayne O'Neil, and David Pippin). The present
chapter has a focus on linguistics literacy, something which is neglected in
American schools, according to the authors. From their perspective, the English
classroom is ''an underused laboratory for the pursuit of serious scientific
inquiry'' (p. 176). The chapter presents a model of linguist-teacher
collaboration where 5th-grade students are encouraged to do linguistics in a
similar fashion as linguists do research (examination of language data, forming
hypotheses based on available data, and so forth). A morphophonological problem
set (noun pluralization in English), which has been successfully used in
independent and public schools settings in Seattle, is used as an example.

Chapter 13: ''Linguistics in a primary school'' (Kristin Denham). Denham has
experience from teaching linguistics in a multi-grade primary classroom in the
US. She hopes to change the way in which knowledge about language is taught and
the ways in which it can best be integrated into K-12 education. Her findings
are in line with those presented in chapter 12, namely that a scientific
approach to teaching linguistics in primary school works well. She finds it
particularly interesting that reluctant or struggling learners excelled at
linguistic problem-solving. The chapter ends with a list of ten suggestions
about the incorporation of linguistics into K-12 education.

Chapter 14: ''Educating linguists: how partner teaching enriches linguistics''
(Anne Lobeck). This chapter echoes the themes of several other
chapters and is a
summary of a two-year project (funded by the National Science Foundation) that
Lobeck and Denham were in charge of. The overarching goal of the
project was ''to
improve science education through a non-traditional gateway, namely through the
science of language'' (p. 206). The present chapter presents the background of
the project, its design, and main conclusions.

Chapter 15: ''The Linguistic Olympiads: academic competitions in
linguistics for
secondary school students'' (Ivan Derzhanski & Thomas Payne). The purpose of
chapter 15 is to give an overview of the Linguistic Olympiad concept
(problem-solving competition in linguistics for secondary school students). The
authors argue for its significance for linguistics and related fields on a
number of levels. The chapter also provides specific descriptions of how the
Linguistics Olympiad has been implemented in Russia, Bulgaria, the US,
and other
countries.

Part 3

Chapter 16: ''And you can all say 'haboo': enriching the standard language arts
curriculum with linguistic analysis'' (Angela Roh). Chapter 16 is the first
chapter in the third part of the book; in other words, it opens up the
vignettes, the voices from the classroom. Roh's chapter introduces an
example of
how linguistics is used in an American Literature classroom in
Washington State.
There, discussions about dialects and registers are initiated by use of the
poetry of Langston Hughes. Another example of incorporating
linguistics into the
classroom is to examine the morphology of the place names in the Puget Sound
region (where the students reside) when Native American languages are
discussed.
Finally, for all curious readers, I may add that the word 'haboo' in the title
is from the Lushootseed language; it is an expected response from an audience
that has listened to a story; by saying 'haboo,' you indicate that you
have paid
attention (p. 235).

Chapter 17: ''Code switching: connecting written and spoken language patterns''
(Karren Mayer & Kirstin New). Mayer and New are literacy teachers at Norfolk
Public school (in the US). They realized that it ''was time to retire
the red pen
method'' (p. 214) because it was not successful: it did not improve their
students' writing and the students developed negative attitudes. After having
taken a professional development course on Rebecca Wheeler's code switching
teaching strategy (see chapter 9), Mayer and New changed their
practice with the
aim to teach their students to code switch from informal to formal writing,
depending on the situation. Students were asked, for example, to volunteer
samples of informal language and their formal counterparts. One reason why code
switching is effective, the authors claim, is that students are allowed to come
up with their own language examples. In the classroom, identifying informal
patterns in children's literature was also used, followed by discussions about
the formal way to present the text. They conclude that the benefit of
using code
switching is that it allows teachers to address writing in a non-threatening
fashion by accepting and validating students' spoken grammar.

Chapter 18: ''A primary teacher's linguistic journey'' (Deidre
Carlson). Carlson,
a primary teacher in the US, contributes with a chapter on how she became
committed to incorporating linguistics into her teaching thanks to her
collaborative work with Kristin Denham. She stresses ''the power of having the
choice'' (p. 249) for students. For example, Carlson argues for the
importance of
being able to choose between using formal or informal language.
Consequently, if
students understand that teachers want to provide them with such language
choices (rather than robbing them of their way of speaking) it will make a
significant difference in how students receive language lessons.

Chapter 19: ''Why do VCE English Language?'' (Caroline Thomas and Sara Wawer).
This chapter is a compilation of the experiences of developing the subject
Victorian Certificate of Education English Language (VCE English Language) in
senior years at Victorian schools in Australia. The authors describe how
standard and non-standard varieties of Australian English are studied side by
side and how students enjoy this type of teaching. Students realize are made
aware that some varieties are given prestige while others are stigmatized. In
VCE English Language classes, students organize and analyze their own collected
language samples from newspapers, MySpace, Facebook, TV, etc. Thomas and Wawer
claim that this is the most rewarding part of the subject: Students make their
own discoveries of the varieties within their own community. Moreover, they
argue that this approach suits classrooms with mixed language backgrounds. In
sum, VCE English Language provides students and teachers with an enjoyable and
challenging subject to explore together.

Chapter 20: ''Language lessons in an American middle school'' (Athena McNulty).
McNulty teaches 8th-grade English in a rural school in need to raise its test
scores in reading as well as in writing. She gives an account of her
experiences
from being a partner teacher with Anne Lobeck and admits that some lessons
worked well, whereas others did not. She points out the necessity of offering
lessons that build on each other and concludes that many of her students --
several below average in academic achievement -- looked forward to the
linguistics lessons. These lessons were focused on inquiry and discovery, a
method that worked.

Chapter 21: ''The diary of Opal Whiteley: a literary and linguistic mystery''
(David Pippin). In this chapter, Pippin (partner teacher with O'Neil and Honda)
discusses how the literary work ''The Diary of Opal Whiteley'' can be
used in the
classroom (grade 5) in order to teach linguistics. The book was a
sensation when
it was published in the 1920s because people could not believe that it was
written by a 6-year-old girl from Oregon (who claimed to be the daughter of
French nobility!). According to Pippin, the Opal diary lays a foundation that
triggers various kinds of linguistic inquiries thanks to Opal's unique style of
writing. In addition, the life of Opal is fascinating, something which
facilitates any teacher's task of successfully introducing the text to
students.

Chapter 22: ''Using the Voices of North Carolina curriculum'' (Leatha
Fields-Carey
& Suzanne Sweat). The authors of chapter 22 are both teachers in a
region of the
southern United States that has grown rapidly and become far more multicultural
and plurilinguistic than it used to be. For some time they have adopted the
Voices of North Carolina Curriculum in their classrooms. This curriculum is
considered valuable because it has, for example, enabled them to discuss biases
in general after first having discussed biases in relation to language. In
comparison, the latter discussion (bias in relation to language) is not as
threatening to the students, so it is suitable to start with. The authors state
that teaching the Voices of North Carolina Curriculum has been an
eye-opener for
them with regard to linguistic discrimination.

Chapter 23: ''A-level English Language teaching in London'' (Dan Clayton). The
final chapter is written by Dan Clayton, who teaches an A-Level
English Language
course (see chapter 3) in a multicultural inner city London school.
His students
speak several different languages and all have experience of linguistic
discrimination. The chapter deals with Clayton's method of building
his teaching
on his students' own language, i.e. their own linguistic resources (such as
their use of slang), to teach for example language variation and change (cf.
chapter 19). The author cites the fact that few people today know what
'English'
is, but, nevertheless, the thread running through his students' multicultural
London is a desire to use the English language ''to forge an identity and speak
to others, to bridge gaps, and also to mark out territory and define identity
within this shifting landscape'' (p. 277).

EVALUATION

My overall impression of ''Linguistics at School'' is very positive.
With regard
to the outline of the book -- three parts of approximately the same
length -- it
works well, moving from top-down approaches to incorporating linguistics into
the classroom (part I) via bottom-up ones (part II) to hands-on classroom
experience (part III). Jackendoff's foreword is insightful and heightens my
curiosity about the book. The editors guide their readers with the inclusion of
brief summaries of the chapters at the beginning of each of the parts
I, II, and
III. Furthermore, all chapters tie in neatly to one another and there
are also a
great many inter-textual cues throughout the book, which indicates a careful
editing process. Thus, on the whole, this is an exemplary volume and
it contains
many important contributions.

The first chapter of the book (Battistella) opens the door to a
central theme of
the book, namely the raising of language awareness in primary and secondary
school. Battistella rightly points out the need for linguistics to show how
language that is seemingly ordinary has great depth and impact beyond its
apparent immediate function. Hudson's chapter 3 is similarly
enlightening in the
way it invokes enthusiasm about the possibility of using linguistics in school.
Hudson stresses that change takes time, but that it is worth waiting for.

O'Neil's chapter 2 may be slightly difficult to digest for readers who are not
fully up-to-date with past and current conditions for education in the USA.
Nevertheless, by using an example of how an email from a regular teacher (David
Pippin) made all the difference, the chapter becomes interesting and appealing
also to a non-American reader such as myself.
Several chapters come across as very useful because of the empirical evidence
that the authors generously share with their readers. One such chapter is
chapter 4, which is about knowledge about language in Scotland; several useful
links to the Internet are included. Another is chapter 7, where ''Do you speak
American?'' and ''Voices of North Carolina'' are discussed. A third example is
chapter 8 on linguistic development in children's writing, mainly because it is
very informative and accounts for the results of several studies. In addition,
the author provides an illustrative table (Table 8.2, pp. 119-120) including
three samples of writing, representing good, average, and weak writing. Most
likely, this is one of the chapters that teachers would benefit most from
reading. Likewise, Wheeler's chapter 9 is also well worth reading for teachers
and it is a suitable text in any tailored linguistics course for in-service
teachers: an impressive account of a fast and remarkable turn-around of 3rd
graders' achievement in English thanks to a linguistic approach to teaching
Standard English. Wheeler uses several student examples and guides the reader
throughout. In sum, chapter 9 shows that traditional correction methods fail to
teach speakers of non-standard varieties the Standard English skills society
demands. All this can be compared with the debate between Chandler and Truscott
on the efficacy of written feedback in the Journal of Second Language Writing
(Chandler 2003; Chandler 2004; Truscott 2004; Truscott 2007). It is worth
mentioning that similar dialectal projects occur also in other countries; one
example from Sweden is Bihl and Nilsson (2006).

Chapter 10 makes it very clear why linguists must be able to view themselves as
learners; the text illustrates why the bottom-up approach makes sense and how
such an approach leads to a win-win situation for both teachers/learners and
linguists/researchers. Also chapter 11 makes it clear that in order to succeed
in bringing linguistics into school, it is essential to engage teachers as
partners in thinking and doing, something which will bring forth ''desperately
needed changes in teachers' thinking and doing'', to quote the author (p. 174).
Along the same lines is chapter 12, which describes a successful bottom-up
project, even though the examples here do not come across quite as convincingly
as those in previous chapters. Nevertheless, the enthusiasm of the teacher and
linguists involved cannot be mistaken.

Both chapters 13 and 14 emphasize the positive outcomes of partner teaching,
i.e., where a linguist teams up with a teacher. Supposedly, such partnerships
lead to ''a goal shared by both linguists and educators, to improve education
about language'' (p. 212). In the case of Denham and Lobeck, partnerships were
made possible thanks to a special grant. In everyday work, most teachers and
linguists do not have access to special grants. A question which remains
unanswered is therefore how all ideas presented in this volume can be
implemented under more normal circumstances. There is a great need for more
financial efforts to support this type of development, which makes the topic of
the present book also an issue for education politics. Even though chapter 15
about the Linguistic Olympiads is informative and interesting per se, it feels
slightly misplaced in this book since the Linguistic Olympiads is in fact an
extracurricular event. In contrast, chapters 16-18 fit the theme of the book
neatly and are all filled with useful examples, comments, and teachers'
experiences. Chapters 19, 22, and 23 stand out slightly in comparison
with other
chapters since they relate stories from classrooms with mixed language
backgrounds. I assume that such classrooms are becoming increasingly common
around the globe and, therefore, perceive these chapters as highly relevant:
They highlight the importance of bottom-up approaches to incorporating
linguistics in school and provide evidence of the fact that teaching gains from
starting with a focus on students' own language variety.

Classrooms with mixed language backgrounds easily lead one's thoughts to
second/foreign language acquisition and whether the projects and ideas
presented
in ''Linguistics at School'' would work also in such contexts. That
matter is not
discussed in the book, but it is worth mentioning that at least ''Do you speak
American?'' (chapter 7) and Wheeler's approach to teaching formal English
(chapter 9) could be relevant also in ESL/EFL and Content and Integrated
Language Learning (CLIL) settings.

In the whole book, chapter 6 (about Californian educational standards) is the
only chapter which left me somewhat disappointed. It was difficult for me to
relate to its content, which again is probably due to the fact that I am not
totally familiar with that specific part of the American educational
system. And
this is probably the only major drawback of the book: Most examples are indeed
from the US. It would have been useful to include more examples from
other parts
of the world; there are some, but I still would have appreciated a few more.
Except for that and the fact that some of the chapters overlap, I warmly
recommend the book to anyone who is interested in the combination of
linguistics
and school, a fascinating topic.

REFERENCES

Bihl, B. & Nilsson, N.E. (2006). Att skriva på dialekt. In S. Granath, J.
Miliander, N.-E. Nilsson & S. Thoursie (eds.), Perspektiv på lärande i
språk och
litteratur (pp. 9-26). Karlstad: Centrum för språk- och litteraturdidaktik,
Karlstad University.

Brown, H. D. (2004). Language assessment: Principles and classroom practices.
White Plains, NY: Longman.

Chandler, J. (2003). The efficacy of various kinds of error feedback for
improvement in the accuracy and fluency of L2 student writing. Journal
of Second
Language Writing, 12 (3), 267-296.

Chandler, J. (2004). A response to Truscott. Journal of Second
Language Writing,
13 (4), 345-348.

Guskey, T. R. (2002). Professional development and teacher change. Teachers and
Teaching: Theory and Practice, 8 (3), 381-391.

Truscott, J. (2004). Evidence and conjecture on the effects of correction: A
response to Chandler. Journal of Second Language Writing, 13 (4), 337-343.

Truscott, J. (2007). The effects of error correction on learners' ability to
write accurately. Journal of Second Language Writing, 16 (4), 255-272.

ABOUT THE REVIEWER

Dr. Pia Sundqvist is a senior lecturer at the English Department, Faculty
of Arts and Education, Karlstad University, Sweden. She currently teaches
linguistics, ESL/EFL teaching methodology, and continuing professional
development courses involving for example ESL/EFL teaching methodology and
the use of ICT in language teaching. Her main research interests are in the
field of second language acquisition and include extramural/informal
learning of English (among young learners and teenagers), L2 vocabulary
acquisition, and oral proficiency in English. Before Dr. Sundqvist received
her doctorate, she worked 15 years as a teacher in secondary and upper
secondary school, teaching English, Swedish and Spanish.


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