16.2057, Review: Lexicography: Schele De Vere (2003)

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LINGUIST List: Vol-16-2057. Sat Jul 02 2005. ISSN: 1068 - 4875.

Subject: 16.2057, Review: Lexicography: Schele De Vere (2003)

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1)
Date: 01-Jul-2005
From: Elizabeth Martinez-Gibson < martineze at cofc.edu >
Subject: Americanisms: American English 1781-1921 

	
-------------------------Message 1 ---------------------------------- 
Date: Sat, 02 Jul 2005 16:57:39
From: Elizabeth Martinez-Gibson < martineze at cofc.edu >
Subject: Americanisms: American English 1781-1921 
 

AUTHOR: Schele De Vere, Maximilian
EDITOR: Davis, Daniel R.
TITLE: Americanisms: The English of the New World
SERIES: American English 1781-1921, Volume V
PUBLISHER: Routledge
YEAR: 2003
Announced at http://linguistlist.org/issues/15/15-1081.html


Elizabeth A. Martínez-Gibson, Associate Professor of Spanish and 
Linguistics, Department of Hispanic Studies, College of Charleston.

In his text, Americanisms of the New World, Schele De Vere discusses 
American English in relation to the origins of its people, and its 
geographical, historical, and social aspects. The linguistic aspect 
addressed is for the most part lexicon with a few references at times 
to the pronunciation of particular words. Pronunciation is also 
reflected in the spelling of the many examples that Schele De Vere 
provides to illustrate the use of specific lexicon or pronunciation of a 
given geographic region or ethnic group.

The main idea addressed in this text is to analyze whether certain 
lexicon and slang expressions are truly Americanisms. Did these 
words and expressions already exist in the English language prior to 
the American colonization? Were they borrowed from one of the 
native or immigrant languages? Maximilian Schele De Vere analyzes 
these linguistic issues by addressing historical, regional. And social 
aspects, as well as native and immigrant influences of the times. 
Language is observed through the lives of the settlers in the United 
States. The origins of the settlers and their linguistic and cultural 
influences are discussed, as well as certain social aspects such as 
religion and politics; and their evolving colonization from east to west.  

Schele De Vere divides his text into twelve main parts: The Indian, 
Immigrants from Abroad, The Great West, The Church, Politics, Trade 
of All Kinds, Afloat, On the Rail, Natural History, Old Friends with New 
Faces, Cant and Slang, and New Forms and Nicknames.

Part I: The Indian.
Schele De Vere begins by analyzing the indigenous influence on 
American English in terms of topography. What he reveals is a greater 
use of British named places instead of indigenous names. Places 
tended to be named after the first settlers rather than their more 
poetic indigenous names which reflected the scenic beauty of these 
places in the United States. Many of the words that are thought to 
have entered the English language via indigenous languages were in 
fact of other origins or a combination thereof. The main indigenous 
tribes that influenced American English were those of North and South 
America with few examples of other indigenous tribes such as those 
from Guiana. Aside from topographic terms, terms regarding fauna 
and flora native to America such as moose, caribou, and the linguistic 
origins of these names were presented in the text.

Part II: Immigrants from Abroad
Schele De Vere presents the immigrant influences in the United States 
by dividing this part into different chapters to represent each group. .

He presents the Dutch influence in the first chapter. Dutch terms and 
slang are observed in the New York/Eastern New Jersey area in 
names of places (Nassau and Catskills), foods (cruller and cole slaw), 
clothing, social system (boss), and even holiday customs (Santa 
Claus). In this chapter, he discusses the confusion that existed with 
the terms Dutch versus Deutsch (German). Many terms that were said 
to be of German origin were in fact later found to be of Dutch origin. 
Although it was difficult to determine whether some terms were 
influenced by German or Dutch terms. The meaning of the terms was 
what ultimately determined the language of origin. New York's 
influence was clearly Dutch, and not German, as was Pennsylvania.

The French and French owned territories in Canada immigrated to 
different parts of the United States, but their influence is most notable 
in the South. The religious group, the Huguenots spread south and 
westward leaving their influence of culture in some of the southern 
states such as South Carolina. Schele De Vere points out that there is 
little French influence observed in American English today. There are 
very few names of places (Lake Champlain) and in Louisiana there 
are some words referring to nature such as bayou. In their movement 
west, some terms for animals (gophers from gaufre), nature, 
transportation/traveling (voyageurs, batteaux=boat), and others were 
borrowed or influenced from French.

The Spanish influence in American English between 1781 and 1921 
were terms that existed prior to the Anglo Saxon take over of the 
Southwest. Terms identifying ethnic and racial groups derived from 
the Spanish language (mulatto, negro), as well as terms pertaining to 
horses, farms (ranch from rancho), foods (palmetto from palmito), 
nature (ratoon from retoño , canyon from cañón ), and bug terms such 
as mosquitoes. 

German, on the other hand, despite its importance in the United 
States, left very little influence on American English. Most of the terms 
presented in this text reflect food and drink, and some slang. The 
terms for food and drink have not only left a linguistic influence, but 
these food items such as apple sauce, lager beer, noodles, and 
others are now part of our culture. 

The "Negro" influence, as Schele De Vere refers to it, was considered 
low on the social scale and their language was considered to be "but 
a step removed from the African savage" (p. 149). Schele De Vere 
points out certain sound differences that African-Americans do not 
distinguish (b and p, t and d). He also discusses terms of African 
origin that are Americanisms such as swanga=swankey. Some of the 
terms brought to this country from African-Americans may have had 
Spanish influence of origin based on historical reasons. The last part 
of his discussion turns to a more cultural topic of the African-American 
passion for religion and music and its influences in the United States.

The Chinese influence on language during the 1781-1921 was minor. 
In this chapter, Schele De Vere talks about the poor treatment the 
Chinese received in the West.  

Part III: The Great West.
This part of the text presents the greatest variety of lexicon. Many 
new words were created since the colonialists chartered into new 
territories encountering new country and new people. There were 
mainly two types of people that headed west: the "adventurers" and 
the "planters". The terms discussed in this part include: rights to land 
and land division (squatters and claims),  the gold rush (diggings, bed-
rock, and prospecting), types of land (bottoms, flats, knobby, and 
barrens), trees (stump, chunk, barking up the wrong tree, and 
chopping bee), log cabin (clapboards and stick-chimney), fences 
(Virginia fence and fence-riding), clothing (hunting shirt, leggings, 
blanket), weapons (rifle; lock, stock, and barrel; and half-cock), 
hunting (grisly, trappers, and deadfall), insects, animals, and liquor.

In providing the numerous terms that relate to the above mentioned 
social topics that were a part of the westerners life, Schele De Vere 
also gives detailed information on the lifestyle, development, and the 
political issues of the pioneers and their rights to land. 

Part IV: The Church.
The people that came to the New World were from different origins 
and their religious backgrounds varied.  In this part, Schele De Vere  
discusses the terminology related to  different churches and the 
practices of different religions. 

Part V: Politics.
This part of the text analyzes a mixture of lexicon that is considered 
political and/or legal to the American system. As he presents these 
terms, he also explains their meaning within the system. For example, 
he discusses the different branches of the American government, 
explaining the duties and composition of each; or different laws such 
as Blue Laws and Lynch Laws. His discussion includes terms and 
meanings associated with bills or voting such as filibuster, lobbying, 
and platform. Terms for different classes or ethnic groups and gangs 
of the times such as Border-Ruffians, Jayhawkers, and Scallawags, as 
well as terms for territorial divisions such as Yankeedom, Dixie, Old 
Dominion, and the West are addressed. 

Part VI: Trade of All Kinds.
Money and commerce are the topics of this part. In discussing money, 
terms such as greenbacks and coniackers are described, as well as 
terms that deal with money transactions such as to run one's face 
(credit), foot the bill, dickering, and bank notes; or bankruptcy (dead-
broke, flatbroke, going up the spout, or to go on lays. On the other 
hand, words such as shoddy or bogus, denote the negative aspects of 
business. Lexicon associated with different trades such as cobblers, 
barkeepers, grocery stores, store-keepers, and relating to stocks are 
presented with their significance of the times. Finally, Schele De Vere 
leads to terminology associated with sports such as card games and 
wrestling, which led to the discussion of fighting (rumpus, rowdy, and 
bully), crime, and punishment (spanking). 

Part VII: Afloat.
The water was one of the leading means of transportation of the time. 
Schele De Vere presents a wide variety of terms and slang (to go a 
cruise, and keeling over) related to boats, navigating, and fishing.

Part VIII: On the Rail.
The railroad, a newer means of transportation as the West was 
settled, allowed for new terminology. In this part, Schele De Vere 
presents vocabulary and meaning associated with the different 
railcars (palace-cars, mail-car, sleeping-car, express-car and 
baggage-car); personnel (conductor, engineer, and baggage 
smasher); parts of the cars, both inside (berths, and state rooms) and 
out (bumpers). Many slang terms have resulted from the railroad such 
as flagged, off the track, to be on the right track, on board, and 
deadheads.
 
Part IX: Natural History.
In this part, there are few Americanisms. However Schele De Vere 
presents the different animals native to the United States such as 
buffalo, elk, muskrat, groundhog (or woodchuck), birds (mockingbirds, 
eagles, buzzards, robins, humming birds, owls, dippers, loons, and 
others), fish (catfish, sunfish, black fish, and rock fish), turtles, crabs 
(fiddler crabs), bugs, plants, herbs, roots, fruits, and berries, weeds, 
grasses and oats, cotton, and moss, trees, creeks, swamps, and rocks.

Part X:Old Friends with New Faces.
Here, Schele De Vere provides one-hundred and forty pages of 
lexicon from American English that have been preserved from an 
obsolete England's English. Schele De Vere has compiled this list of 
words giving both their new meaning in American English and their old 
meaning in England's English. He also provides information on regions 
or ethnic groups where these terms are used. For each of the words 
he cites examples of its use from varied documents.
 
Part XI: Cant and Slang.
In this part, Schele De Vere compiles another list of slang terms. Many 
of these slang terms already existed throughout Europe so few are 
true Americanisms. However the development and discovery of the 
West have provided new slang terms, some of which still exist in 
American English today.

Part XII:New Forms and Nicknames
This part presents the creation of new terms which result in 
backformations, abbreviations, and nicknames for states and cities.

CONCLUSION

This book provides a good idea of the linguistic/cultural and 
historical/social development of American English during the period of 
1781 and 1921. It includes the origins of many Americanisms as well 
as those words that were not considered Americanisms. Schele De 
Vere presents a great variety of lexicon for the fauna and flora specific 
to the United States, as well as foods, equipment, and social systems 
found in the United States or brought by other cultures. 

In reading this text and analyzing the different immigrant and native 
indigenous groups of the various regions of the United States, the 
linguistic influences in specific areas become obvious. 

This text is a good reference book. It provides a historical perspective 
of the various regions of the United States: the indigenous influences 
of different regions, the immigrant influences from east to West, the 
social influences such as the church and politics, the cultural 
influences of food, trades, and nature. In addition, it presents a good 
explanation of words that are truly Americanisms, those that existed 
before English came to America, and those words that were borrowed 
or simply created from mispronunciations of lexicon in the other 
immigrant languages. Schele De Vere also looks at lexicon that 
existed prior to the colonizing the United States that either, kept their 
original meaning, extended their original meaning, and/or changed it. 
Many of the slang expressions and terms observed in this text can be 
seen in today's American English and the text provides good 
explanations of their origins. 

ABOUT THE REVIEWER

Elizabeth A. Martínez-Gibson is an Associate Professor at the College 
of Charleston, Charleston, SC. She is the author of "Morpho-syntactic 
Variation Among Two Generational Groups of Spanish Speakers in 
the United States," (Peter Lang, 1993) and numerous articles. She 
has been at the College of Charleston for fourteen years and created 
a Linguistics Minor in 2003. Her areas of interest include: Spanish and 
English linguistics, Language variation and change of English and 
Spanish, second language acquisition, bilingualism, Spanish in the 
U.S., Spanish and English phonetics, and most recently medical 
interpreting.





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