16.2180, Review: Bilingualism: Cunningham-Andersson & Andersson

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LINGUIST List: Vol-16-2180. Sun Jul 17 2005. ISSN: 1068 - 4875.

Subject: 16.2180, Review: Bilingualism: Cunningham-Andersson & Andersson

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1)
Date: 14-Jul-2005
From: Magdalena Fialkowska < fialka at ifa.amu.edu.pl >
Subject: Growing Up with Two Languages: A Practical Guide 

	
-------------------------Message 1 ---------------------------------- 
Date: Sun, 17 Jul 2005 14:56:25
From: Magdalena Fialkowska < fialka at ifa.amu.edu.pl >
Subject: Growing Up with Two Languages: A Practical Guide 
 

AUTHORS: Cunningham-Andersson, Una; Andersson, Staffan
TITLE: Growing Up with Two Languages
SUBTITLE: A Practical Guide
PUBLISHER: Routledge (Taylor and Francis)
YEAR: 2004
Announced at http://linguistlist.org/issues/15/15-2703.html


Magdalena Anna Fialkowska, School of English, 
Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznan, Poland

OVERVIEW

The book aims to serve as a practical guide for parents whose 
everyday life involves using two or more languages. The authors 
attempt to describe how families are affected by living with two 
languages and cultures and how these aspects are related to each 
other in a bicultural and bilingual environment. Many issues are 
discussed "cross-methodologically", i.e. are based on opinions 
provided by informants living in various linguistic arrangements. 
Throughout the book the authors convince the readers that a bilingual 
home is not a privilege of exogamic couples and, and even though it 
may involve issues unknown to a monolingual home it is less 
complicated that one may think. The book presents data from 150 
individuals and families. It provides new and updated Internet 
resources, gives information on the problems faced by teenagers and 
their possible solutions, reports on new research into language 
acquisition, and offers first-hand advice and examples.

SYNOPSIS

The book consists of nine chapters, four appendices, a glossary, a 
bibliography, and a term index. 

CHAPTER 1: Families with two languages
The first section discusses the origins of family bilingualism. The 
authors show how reasons for moving from one country to another 
are influenced by people's diverse expectations and motivations. In 
the second section language choice, language mixing, language 
switching, and communication are discussed. The language that 
parents decide to use at the beginning will influence the future system 
of communication in the family. The last section focuses on the 
minority language families, i.e. immigrants, refugees, international 
employees, and visiting academics who move to another country. 
These families are in a better position since, if necessary, they can 
close their door to the majority culture in order to feel "safe" at home 
using the minority language. The authors make it clear, however, that 
these families are not free from problems.

CHAPTER 2: Expecting a child in a bilingual home
In this chapter the most important question is: "What do you want for 
your child?" People's reasons for raising children bilingually vary 
depending on plans, e.g., if the family intends to stay in the majority 
language country, or not. The first section stresses that a child should 
be able to become a part of the minority language community if there 
is one in the area, and whatever the situation, it should be vital for the 
parents to ensure that their children should not only be able to 
communicate with their minority language relatives, but also be aware 
of the cultural background of the minority language parent. Parents 
are also advised to speak their native languages to the child. The 
second section of the chapter focuses on planning, e.g., who is going 
to speak which language to the child, and in what way any unusual 
conditions, e.g., child's disability or a sudden need to move away, may 
influence this system. The problem of giving names to children is also 
introduced here and several solutions are suggested. The last section 
draws parents' attention to issues such as children's willingness or 
unwillingness to be exposed to public attention by speaking the 
minority language to them, negative opinions about the minority 
language, reactions from minority language grandparents, and others.

CHAPTER 3. The family language system
Chapter three attempts to distinguish between three types of systems: 
One-Parent-One-Language method, One-Parent-One-Location 
strategy, and several types of "artificial" bilingualism, such as placing 
children in an international school or employing a foreign au-pair. 
Each strategy is discussed separately. The authors explain that any 
system will work if it answers the needs of the family members and is 
flexible enough to be changed if necessary. It is underlined, however, 
that no system is allowed to interfere with the siblings' choice of 
language to communicate. Many aspects, e.g., the child's unbalanced 
input in the OPOL method or being strict about the system established 
at home, are supported by the informants' opinions.

CHAPTER 4. Language development
Chapter four briefly describes the moment when a child recognizes 
speech and starts producing sounds. The importance of an equal 
input in both languages is stressed and advice is given on how to 
correct a child who mixes newly acquired words when addressing the 
parents without disappointing the child. The question taken up is why 
it is essential for the minority language parents not to avoid using their 
native language unless it is necessary. These parents often do so in 
public so as not to expose their child to public attention, or switch to 
the majority language when talking to their offspring in front of 
monolingual children so as not to let them feel left out. Because of 
these practices, such parents often become hesitant speakers unable 
to cope with discussions with their teenage children, whose 
knowledge of the minority language soon becomes passive. 
Interference and mixing is the focus of the second section, which 
convinces us that "what is true for one child may not be for other" (p. 55), 
and, consequently, with two or three children parents may 
witness very different ways of linguistic development. There is no 
need to worry, though, if the interference and mixing phase gets 
sorted out with time in the case of one child and in the case of the 
other some encouragement is necessary to make the child use 
appropriate words. The chapter ends with a brief overview of the 
critical period hypothesis. 

CHAPTER 5: The child with two languages
This chapter focuses on schooling as well as the pros and cons of 
bilingual upbringing. During early childhood, any attempts to analyse 
the stream of sounds made by a child are hindered by the existence of 
two languages, while the amount of words that the child has to learn is 
doubled. For older children being different from the peers turns out to 
be a problem and a question arises as to what can be done to make 
children feel proud of their atypical childhood. The advantages of 
growing up in two languages include having access to the rich world 
of language and literature, and the ability to communicate with one's 
relatives with ease. Also, if necessary, passive knowledge of the 
minority language can easily be activated. In the second section, the 
authors consider it vital that children learn their two languages at their 
own pace, and stress that literacy in both languages is the only way to 
help children discover the true value of being bilingual. 

CHAPTER 6: Practical parenting in a bilingual home
Chapter six opens with a list of instructions helping children make the 
most of the bilingual situation around them. Home language education 
and Saturday schools are suggested, and additional ways of 
enhancing children's exposure to the minority language are listed, e.g. 
networking (i.e. meeting monolingual minority language speakers), 
mini-immersion (when a child attends school in the minority language 
country for a few days), trips, TV, books, and others. The second part 
gives some ideas how to obtain materials in the minority language and 
concentrates on what should be done at home to help a child become 
fluent in the minority language. These involve: talking to a child about 
things a parent is/was/will be doing, listening to the child with gentle 
corrections of his/her speech, keeping track of the child's development 
in order to compare its stages, reading to and with the child.

CHAPTER 7: Competence in two cultures
Chapter seven is concerned with raising children in two cultures. In 
the first part the authors present two groups of parents having 
contrasting views on bicultural upbringing. Yet, the authors stress that 
regardless of whether the parents want their children to be bicultural 
or not, every family must make a firm decision which must be made 
active. It is also explained that "while parents alone can give children a 
second language, they will not be able to give them a second culture 
without the help of others and the support of the society" (p. 88). The 
difference between helping children "feel at home" in the two cultures 
and merely showing them how to "be polite" in both of them must be 
remembered. The second section deals with religion and briefly 
explains why religion and culture are intimately associated with each 
other. The last section focuses on traditions, hospitality, and social 
behaviour with its consequences. This section stresses the assets 
which are offered by the intercultural upbringing not only to young 
people - by showing them how the same aspects may be viewed 
differently - but also to adults who can see their own culture through 
new eyes.

CHAPTER 8. Problems you may encounter
This chapter analyses several problematic areas. The first is 
concerned with the parents' linguistic competence and the quality of 
input that a child receives. Parents are advised to use their native 
language, since the use of other language than their own may result 
in the child's acquiring non-native features in their speech. Minority 
language parents are advised to support their language so as not to 
let it become old-fashioned. These parents may try one of the 
methods recommended in the subsection on language attrition. The 
second issue deals with semilingualism, defined as a lack of native-
speaker competence in either of the speaker's languages. The notion 
of semilingualism is applied to children who have a limited exposure to 
the minority language. The chapter ends with two sections devoted to 
such problems as divorce, death of a parent, moving away, or bringing 
up a child with disabilities.

CHAPTER 9. The way ahead
In the last chapter such aspects as motivation, identity, self-image, 
encouragement for teenagers and improving language proficiency are 
discussed. It is emphasized that motivation will fluctuate and that 
parents' motivation strongly influences the children's willingness to 
speak the minority language. This is why working with children 
systematically is extremely important, and, at the same time, very 
difficult. Children often feel disappointed that they are not 
indistinguishable from their monolingual peers, and parent's 
encouragement may be of help to them. As regards identity, 
teenagers are the most sensitive group and convincing them that a 
visit to the minority language country can fill most gaps left in the 
minority language may ease most of their doubts. However, the book 
rightly points out that the parents' main aim should be to ensure that 
their children feel at home in the majority language country, while it is 
secondary to help them feel at home in the minority language country. 
Improving one's linguistic proficiency is also discussed. 

APPENDICES
Appendix A: Organising a workshop on raising children 
This appendix may function as a guide for parents, teachers, and 
others interested in the mutual exchange of experience and tips 
concerning raising children in two languages. It provides readers with 
a sample of a programme for a two-hour high-level workshop, and 
helps them prepare a similar meeting in their own communities giving 
them a list of issues to be considered.

Appendix B: Ways to support a child's development in two languages
This appendix discusses three types of meetings supporting children's 
bilingual development. The goal of The Parent and Child Group is to 
make families with the same minority language meet and exchange 
opinions. The Minority Language Play School is a place where 
children are left with teachers or leaders. Smaller children may need a 
settling-period, thus is it better suited for pre-school and school 
children. Finally, Saturday School is a good idea for children of all 
ages, but as this type of meeting needs extra motivation, children are 
rarely willing to sacrifice another morning at school. All these ways of 
supporting children's bilingualism require good teachers, materials, 
location, and funds.

Appendix C: Documenting a child's linguistic development
The third appendix is a set of three photocopiable sheets for parents 
to keep track of their children's linguistic development: Vocabulary 
Development sheet consists of four columns ("Object", "Language 
1", "Language 2" and "Comments"), Mean Length of Utterance and 
Language Mixing sheet (one column for "Sentence", one to count 
words and one to count mixing) and the Pronunciation sheet (one 
column for words and the other to explain problems a child has with 
pronouncing them).
 
Appendix D: Internet resources
The last appendix enumerates Internet addresses grouped into three 
categories: Web links, Meeting places and Locating material. They are 
a helpful starting point providing links to many resources, including 
discussion panels, mailing lists, online communities, Internet 
bookshops and others.

CRITICAL EVALUATION

What made the book especially intriguing to me was the authors 
themselves: brought up in Northern Ireland, Cunningham-Andersson 
studied Spanish, French and Irish as a foreign language learner, was 
a second language learner living in Spain for a year, and first came 
into contact with Swedish at the age of 20, while Andersson uses a 
language which he has not fully mastered to communicate with his 
wife. Their book covers a wide spectrum of aspects concerned with 
not only raising children to be bilingual, but also their future, their 
relations with friends and family, the parents' linguistic situation and 
development, and many others. All these aspects are supported by 
creative ideas and opinions provided by informants coming from 
various corners of the world and speaking different languages, e.g., 
English, Japanese, Spanish, Hebrew, Swedish, Taiwanese, 
Portuguese, Slovak, German, Chinese, French, and others. Much 
attention is paid to aspects omitted in other books, such as close and 
distant plans, death of a parent, sharing religious plans for children or 
feelings of other "parties" involved, e.g., grandparents, cousins, aunts 
and uncles, friends, peers etc. The authors do not claim that their 
methods are ideal, but show both strong and weak sides of many 
choices, which makes most of their advice easily applicable, helpful 
and practical. 

The section about literacy is worth mentioning as one of the most 
comprehensive and useful parts (Chapter 6), stressing the importance 
of reading to and with children (especially those raised bilingually) 
before and after they learn how to read. Mostly, I appreciated the 
authors' optimistic approach towards unforeseen turns in life which 
force parents to change or give up their plans for a bilingual family. I 
was also happy to find a comprehensive overview of problems and 
rewards of introducing two cultures, as well as many social and 
individual challenges resulting from living "in two cultures". It was also 
intriguing for me to observe how reading about other parents' 
experience helps me understand the authors' explanations. One of 
the greatest advantages of the book are the appendices which I found 
to be an invaluable source of information and ideas showing that a 
workshop can be more than just a meeting for the parents.

As to the drawbacks, first I would like to point to the confusion in the 
use of the term "bilingual". In the preface, the authors explain that 
their avoidance of the term "bilingual" results from the difficulty in 
providing the criteria to measure one's bilingualism (p. xii). Later in the 
book, they do not provide any comments when quoting parents using 
this term with reference to the children's abilities. I find this situation 
perplexing, as it seems clear that informants use the term "bilingual" to 
describe their children's ability to communicate in both languages, not 
necessarily being balanced in both of them. Since positing a generally 
accepted definition appears to be so difficult, why to abandon the term 
so soon? And why do it at all?  

I feel a similar ambivalence towards certain limits that the book places 
on itself. Firstly, the authors mostly refer to groups, organizations, and 
families in Sweden, i.e. their own home country. Secondly, some 
advise might be given from a family in which children have to learn an 
alphabetic as well as a non-alphabetic writing system, e.g., an English-
Japanese family.

CHAPTER 2:
The section "Making plans" (p. 18) seems to deal with similar aspects 
as the previous section ("What do you want for your child" (p. 12)), i.e. 
planning and choosing what is best for the child. They might have 
been included under one heading.

CHAPTER 3:
Naming one of the sections "'Artificial' bilingualism" (p. 41) seems 
contradictory and unfair to me. The authors avoid the term since 
defining a bilingual without going into details is too complicated. They 
claim that it is almost impossible to be truly bilingual unless one 
receives the same amount of input of the two languages, which in 
reality is a very difficult task. Thus, trying to raise a child to be bilingual 
(which is already doubtful) with the use of "artificial" methods seems to 
be even more impossible. In addition, why should we call it "artificial" 
at all, if a family wants to change the place of residence for some time 
to help their children pick up a foreign language? 

CHAPTER 8 
The authors advise parents bringing along a pre-school helper to the 
country they are going to move to in order to maintain the children's 
skills in the minority language. Since such a scheme is very costly, it 
may, however, not be available to many bilingual families. In the 
subsection "Death of a parent" (p. 113) the authors claim that if it is 
the minority language parent who dies, the children's competence in 
this language is seriously jeopardized. I believe that if the majority 
language parent dies, children's linguistic and psychological 
development is equally endangered. There are families where minority 
language parents do not learn the majority language and in such 
cases these parents' competence in the majority language may be too 
low to communicate with children immediately after the death of the 
majority language parent. Although there is still the minority language 
to use, it is often the children's weaker language, and talking, e.g., 
about school may be difficult for the first few months. 

APPENDICES
My only criticism here applies to Appendix D. Some of the pages are 
old (e.g., Bilingual Families Web Page was last updated in 1998), 
while some URLS are not valid (e.g., Bilingual Families Web Page > 
Resources > Nordic Languages > Barnesiden). In addition, there 
occurs some permanent error when one tries to subscribe to the 
mailing list under Biling-Fam Internet mailing list.

The book is generally nicely edited with very few spelling errors.

CONCLUSION

Overall, this book is aimed for all parents who would like to give their 
children a chance to grow up in two languages. It may be valuable not 
only for families where parents have different native languages, but 
also for any family where children are taught a minority language, be it 
in the kindergarten, from an au-pair or at school. Problems to consider 
are often similar in there families, and this book collects them all in one 
place. This book may also appear useful for teachers working with 
children brought up in mixed families, as it helps them learn what kind 
of problems such children deal with and how to help them. 

ABOUT THE REVIEWER

Magdalena Fialkowska is currently a PhD student at the English 
Department at Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznan, Poland, but in 
two months she will transfer her PhD to the University of Surrey, 
Guildford, England. She will spend three years in the Department of 
Linguistic, Cultural and Translational Studies working on her PhD, 
which is going to be focused on the acquisition of morphology by 
Polish-English bilingual children.





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