24.861, Review: Applied Linguistics; Sociolinguistics: Hasan (2011)

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LINGUIST List: Vol-24-861. Mon Feb 18 2013. ISSN: 1069 - 4875.

Subject: 24.861, Review: Applied Linguistics; Sociolinguistics: Hasan (2011)

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Date: Mon, 18 Feb 2013 10:16:40
From: Gail Al Hafidh [ghafidh at yahoo.co.uk]
Subject: Language and Education

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Book announced at http://linguistlist.org/issues/22/22-4213.html

AUTHOR: Ruqaiya  Hasan
EDITOR: Jonathan J. Webster
TITLE: Language and Education
SUBTITLE: Learning and Teaching in Society
SERIES TITLE: The Collected Works of Ruqaiya Hasan (Volume 3)
PUBLISHER: Equinox Publishing Ltd
YEAR: 2011

REVIEWER: Gail Karen Al Hafidh, Sharjah Higher Colleges of Technology

SUMMARY

''Language and Education: Learning and Teaching in Society'', by Ruqaiya
Hasan, is the third volume of a series of linguistic texts addressing key
issues at the heart of language pedagogy. The book is organised in three
sections and comprises the written versions of talks (apart from Chapters 4, 8
and 10) given by the author over a period of 50 years. Hasan herself reflects
that during that time there were changes in attitudes and foci of discussion
but that many issues remain core: learner identity; the role of language in
all processes of teaching and learning; and finally, the relationship between
language, culture and the process of education. Referring constantly to the
respected and influential works of Saussure (1966), Labov (1970), Bernstein
(1990), and Halliday (1991), to name but a few, Hasan develops the notion of
‘semantic distance’ to explore the different ways in which meaning is
constructed and argues, using Systemic Functional Theory as her conceptual
framework, that learning linguistic rules in isolation, and out of semantic
context, is absurd.

Section 1: On Learning and Teaching

Section 1 contains 4 chapters, with the fourth being co-authored by David
Butt, on Bernstein’s (1999) paper entitled ''Vertical and Horizontal
Discourse; an essay''. Chapter 1 reiterates the importance of grammar in
supporting meaning and claims that lexicogrammar is central to what teachers
are using to facilitate both the production of and the interoperation of
meaning. Citing linguistic giants such as Halliday, Mathiesen, Vygotsky and
Chomsky, Hasan discusses the role of both semiotic and non-semiotic experience
in the construction of meaning and concludes that every experience is relevant
in this process. She uses examples of grammatical analysis of the process of
teaching to support her claim that wording and meaning are inseparable and to
further her argument that “reflection literacy” is about enabling “enquiry
into the inferences of what the analysis ‘is saying’” (p. 44). The discourse
of teaching and learning is therefore more than just a mechanical exchange of
ideas; it is an exchange also of experiences and a fluid construction of
meaning thereof, according to Hasan.

Chapter 2 goes on to look at modes of learning and teaching, where Hasan
maintains that language is the most powerful semiotic tool because it is ''so
versatile” (p. 54). Hasan draws a distinction between unofficial pedagogy
(i.e. local pedagogy) and that which is planned and organised in an organised
curriculum. She argues that curricula reflect the nature of the society in
which they are planned such that a “closed curriculum” (p. 65) that has strict
categories may reflect a more highly hierarchical society. In this way, Hasan
implies that curricula are “subtle indicators of a society’s predispositions”
(p. 65) and stresses the importance of opening up education systems so that
society can embrace its potential.

Chapter 3 begins with a discussion of the linguistic debate about the nature
of differences between languages and separates the two key camps as those who
agree that the ‘semantic space’ in all languages is the same (i.e.
Universalists) and those who don’t (i.e. Particularists). Hasan maintains that
“semantic distance” (p.83) results in different semantic interpretations
across cultures and that this has implications for pedagogy: educators need to
be aware of how the “student is visualizing the context of his/her discourse”
(p.96). The final chapter in this section is a lengthy critical discussion by
Hasan and Butt linking Bernstein’s work on discourse with Systemic Functional
Linguistics. They conclude that Bernstein’s essay was a milestone that
provided a springboard for further discussion about horizontal and vertical
discourse, but that more analyses still need to be done.

Section 2: Language and Literacy

Literacy is the focus of Section 2. In Chapter 5, Hasan cites Bernstein (1990)
and Bourdieu and Passeron’s (1977) work linking the relationship between a
society’s pedagogic institutions and its social and political structure. She
postulates that if this connection exists, the goals of literacy must be
considered against social environments. The state of being literate is having
the ability to make sense of signs, with those semiotic acts being socially
grounded and individually held. Hasan then explores the idea of literacy
therefore not being simply a language-based practice for reading and writing
and asks whether it should be separated from any ‘specific sign system’ or
from language itself (p. 172). Hasan criticises the traditional methods of
literacy teaching in schools today, as she sees them as focusing on
“recognition literacy” (p. 178), or on the written shape and spoken sound of a
word, whilst ignoring the ‘mode of social action’. She goes further to say
that only focusing on recognition literacy “creates an ideology of language as
plastic and powerless” (p. 180). Language thus taught is accepted as correct
and Hasan implies that this emits an insidious message that language is a
mirror reflecting reality rather than being an active part of that reality.
Recognition literacy therefore concerns itself with language as expression and
Hasan argues that ‘action literacy’ (i.e. language as expression and content
in relation to social processes) and ‘reflection literacy’ (i.e. language as
meta-discourse) are equally important facets of literacy and logically
interrelated. This chapter ends with a decisive concluding sentence referring
to literacy as a “socially powerful process” (p. 204) that will have
consequences for the society of which it is a part.

Chapter 6 reflects on the power of language in the global context, which,
according to Hasan, is not an issue. Language, she argues, is “impartial to
ethical matters” (p. 213). It is the speaker who has the power, which is
generated by the manner of language use, and, in the case of global
multinationals, ‘glib-speak’, as she refers to it, is loaded with the politics
of capitalism and often poorly understood by disadvantaged host countries. She
uses the words ‘equality’, ‘freedom’ and ‘non-discrimination’ as examples. She
concludes that ignorance of intention is not enough: reflective literacy
should enable us to better understand the society in which we live. Literacy
should empower the literate person to both make sense of language through the
interpretation of meaning and how it is used to shape the society in which
he/she lives.

In the final chapter in this section, Chapter 7, Hasan explores the
possibility of social change instigated by reflective literacy and refers back
to Bernstein’s (1990) sociology. She reiterates her view that ‘glib-speak’ has
caused words to be ‘resemanticized’ such that “accountability”, for example,
is no longer meaningful to society, but rather to corporations and market
forces. She argues that being a native speaker is not always enough to be able
to interpret changing semantics, as big companies have their own agendas and
use their 'spin doctors' to recreate meaning according to their terms. In
terms of education, Hasan vehemently argues that “educational systems can
never be divorced from society'' (p. 247) and must reflect the values of that
society. It is important, she feels, that there be a balance in the
classification (i.e. pedagogic, dialogic relationship) between education and
production. This is in conflict with what is happening in many parts of the
world today, she argues; education is bending to external economic pressures
and the classification is quite weak. In contrast, if the classification is
very strong, it can lead to academic elitism.

Section 3: Mother Tongue and Other Tongue

The final section of the book looks at how language relates to cross-cultural
education, with particular reference to the Indo-Pakistani sub-continent, as
well as England. The issues faced by students transferring from India to
England relate back to what Hasan refers to in Chapter 2. Institutions in the
Indian subcontinent have strong classifications or boundaries (e.g. caste,
occupation, age) within content areas such that sciences are clearly distinct
from humanities. The framing of knowledge in this way, argues Hasan, can
reduce student autonomy of what education he/she has access to, thus allowing
the teacher control of the learning process. This is clearly a limitation on
the potential of the student to progress with a broad education. Hasan refers
to this framework as having more to do with gathering knowledge than
developing understanding, which causes problems for students, since they are
coming from education systems that have defined their identity through a
certain culture of education. This ‘identity’ is challenged in the English
system. The context of learning is also identified as part of the learning
process: “language is part of human life, not an autonomous structure” (p.
285). Hasan argues that teachers of second-language learners must be
cognoscente of this and endeavor to create a community and appropriate context
for learners to adapt to the target educational system.

In Chapter 10, Hasan returns to the idea that learning grammar in isolation is
not learning a language at all. Language should be used in context to
construct meaning and both teacher and student need to know the ‘how’ and
‘why’ that translates into meaning. To facilitate this, she explores the
Systemic Functional approach to language teaching and presents a detailed
clarification of the metafunctions of language. In the closing comments of
this chapter, Hasan justifies the detailed treatment of the social bias of
linguistic theory by arguing that “the choice of a pedagogic grammar has to
engage with the issue of whether or not grammar is relevant to successful
communication” (p. 334).

In the final chapter (11), Hasan looks at how understanding the nature of
language is important to teaching it and uses examples from Urdu and English
to clarify points made. She uses the idea of time (linear in English but
circular in Urdu) to show how language patterns are not identical and explains
how different perceptions of tenses in Urdu, compared with English, reflect
the different mental processes taking place in each language. Her final
comments restate her commitment to the teaching of grammar: “learning the
so-called rules of grammar without relating them systematically to meaning is
a waste of time…it is to deprive pupils of understanding; it is to deny them
the power of reflection on how meanings are transacted in their community” (p.
375).

EVALUATION

This volume is an essential addition to any library collection focusing on the
field of linguistics and education. It ties together key topic areas
concerning semantic theory and issues related to sociolinguistics within the
parameters of education and its influence on society at large. By publishing a
collection of related conference papers, Hasan presents the major concerns
facing educators by looking closely at the processes of education and how
language plays a key role in connecting those processes with the culture of a
society. In doing so, she builds on established linguistic theories,
revisiting the works of influential theorists such as Saussure, Vygotsky,
Halliday, Chomsky, and others, in the context of more recent research, to
present a new perspective on the aforementioned issues. Bernstein is a
prominent and recurring theorist to whom she returns regularly throughout the
book in relation to the role of family, society and education and their roles
in the evolution of human consciousness. Bernstein’s theories are the pivot
upon which much of Hasan’s own theories take shape.

Hasan’s idiosyncratic style is not to lay down what she feels to be
irrefutable evidence to support her claims, but to pose rhetorical questions
to the reader in order to invoke thought and reaction. The volume is less of a
practical guide to teaching language, although several chapters do contain
some quite detailed linguistic analysis of teacher-learner interaction and
pertinent linguistic items, and more of a presentation of theoretical
considerations concerning language, culture and society. This is a deliberate
ploy by Hasan who, in her preface, states that there are already ample
resources available dedicated to the actual practice of language teaching. As
an important backdrop to theoretical issues, however, the author articulately
maps out her views on the relationship between institutions and society and
uses sociolinguistic theory and observations of current trends and targets in
education to bemoan the commercialisation of education: “while efficient and
economic management of any institution is highly desirable, social
institutions typically survive if they fulfill some social function” (p. xvi).
This is a recurring, prominent argument throughout the volume: education is
about reasoning, thinking and producing knowledge in the interests of the
society it serves, both present and future.

In terms of layout and structure, the book does not follow a chronological
order of papers presented, so there is danger of confusion if the book is read
conventionally and not as a dip-in- and-out-of resource. However, the constant
recycling and development of ideas adds to the richness and texture of the
volume. As for the organisation of the chapters, the three sections could
possibly have fit more comfortably into two sections, with Chapter 6 falling
in Section 2, and Chapters 5 and 7 in Section 1. The endnotes closing each
chapter offer useful insight and commentary on the chapter’s content. Overall,
the delivery of the material is thought-provoking and the style is accessible
for both academics and general readers.

Of particular note is Hasan's persuasive style: she herself has a firm
understanding of the power of language and uses it effectively, through clear
and appropriate examples, to deliver her message. This is clearly evident in
Chapter 4, a particularly engaging chapter in which both Hasan and Butt apply
a philosophical critique to Bernstein's (1999) paper. Hasan's great strength
is that she is able to skillfully and thoroughly discuss key concepts that may
be quite abstract and apply those to concrete situations to give them meaning
and shape for the reader.

In summary, this volume elevates and highlights current debates central to
education and its role in society by grounding arguments presented in
established sociolinguistic theory and adding in-depth reflections to further
illuminate issues. It is a very important and valuable book that applies
Systemic Functional Theory reflectively to facilitate our understanding of the
role of language in pedagogy and its effect on society.

REFERENCES 

Bernstein, B. (1990) The Structuring of Pedagogic Discourse (Vol. IV: Class,
codes and control). London & New York: Routledge.

Bourdieu, P. (1992) Language and Symbolic Power. Cambridge: Polity Press.

Bourdieu, P and Passeron J.C. (1977) Reproduction in Education, Society and
Culture (2nd edn). London: Sage

Chomsky, N. (1957) Syntactic Structures. The Hague: Mouton & Co 

Chomsky, N. (1965) Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press

Chomsky, N. (1986) Knowledge of language: Its nature, origin and use.
Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.

De Saussure, F. de (1966) Course in General Linguistics, translated and edited
by Wade Baskin. New York: McGraw-Hill Publishers.

Eggins, S. (2005) An Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics. New
York: Continuum International Publishing Group.

Halliday, M.A.K. (1991) The notion of context in language education.. In T. Le
and M. McCausland (eds) Language Education: Interaction and Development.
Proceedings of International Conference, Vietnam 1991.

Hasan, R. (2009a). The Place of Context in a Systemic Functional Model. In
M.A.K Halliday & J. Webster (Eds), Continuum Companion to Systemic Functional
Linguistics (pp. 166-189). London: Continuum.

Hasan, R. (2009b). Wanted: a theory for integrated sociolinguistics. In J.J
Webster (Ed), Semantic Variation: Meaning in Society and in Sociolinguistics
(Vol. 2 of The Collected Works of Ruqaiya Hasan, pp.5-40). London & Oakville:
Equinox.

Labov, W. (1970) The study of language in its social context. Studium Generale
23:30-87. Reprinted in Labov 1972.

Vygotsky, L.S (1962) Thought and Language, edited and translated by E.
Hanffman and G Vakar. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Vygotsky, L.S (1978) Mind in Society: The development of Higher Psychological
Processes, edited by M. Cole, V. John-Steiner, S.Scribner and E.Souberman.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Whorf, B.L (1956) Language Thought and Reality, edited by J.B Carroll.
Cambridge: MIT Press


ABOUT THE REVIEWER

Gail Al Hafidh received her doctoral degree (EdD) from the U.K's Open
University and is currently working as English faculty in the Liberal Studies
program at the Higher Colleges of Technology in Sharjah, United Arab Emirates.
She holds a Masters in TEFL and Applied Linguistics and has previously worked
in the British state school system (secondary level) as a modern languages
teacher, in the business world as a management trainer, and in further
education. Her interests include intercultural communication, assessment of
speaking skills, CALL and ESL/EFL Teacher Training.








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