25.365, Review: Computational Ling; Socioling; Translation: Jim=?UTF-8?Q?=C3=A9nez-Crespo_?=(2013)

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LINGUIST List: Vol-25-365. Wed Jan 22 2014. ISSN: 1069 - 4875.

Subject: 25.365, Review: Computational Ling; Socioling; Translation: Jiménez-Crespo (2013)

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Rajiv Rao, U of Wisconsin Madison
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Mateja Schuck, U of Wisconsin Madison
Anja Wanner, U of Wisconsin Madison
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Date: Wed, 22 Jan 2014 09:18:14
From: Nadia Economou [enadia at ilsp.gr]
Subject: Translation and Web Localization

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Book announced at http://linguistlist.org/issues/24/24-2181.html

AUTHOR: Miguel A. Jimenez-Crespo
TITLE: Translation and Web Localization
PUBLISHER: Routledge (Taylor and Francis)
YEAR: 2013

REVIEWER: Nadia P. Economou, Institute for Language and Speech Processing

SUMMARY

The need for a book like “Translation and Web Localization” emerged as a
result of deep changes brought by the Internet in our lives.  Web localization
is entrenched as a field of study beyond translation and localization, which
embraces “cognitive, pragmatic, discourse, communicative and technological
perspectives” (p. 2) in the process of rendering web texts suitable for
readers speaking different languages and living in different socio-economic
contexts. The book is organized into a brief introduction and three parts. The
first part gives definitions for the main terms (localization and web
localization); the second part deals with current issues in web localization
research and the final part constitutes a look at the future of web
localization.

PART I: TECHNOLOGY, LOCALIZATION AND TRANSLATION: EVOLVING CONCEPTUALIZATIONS

1. The emergence of localization

Chapter 1 delineates the field of localization as evolving over the last two
decades either as a distinct process or as a technological extension of
translation. Localization of digital texts emerged as a need with the
continuing growth of the Internet. The field spread as a separate branch
within Translation Studies during the late 1970s and early 1980s. Localization
started from English to other languages, whereas later the procedure was
reversed; web pages are localized into the lingua franca to address global
audiences. Early on, it became obvious that it is more than a translation
process for linguists.

In the rest of the chapter, Jiménez-Crespo gives an overview of all the
definitions of localization. Depending on their starting point and their
perspective, various scholars from various disciplines define localization as
a process of rendering a digital text to be used by audiences in different
sociocultural regions and languages as well as the products of the above
processes.

For the industry, localization is a translation process with additional
components, dealing with texts having the ‘look and feel’ of locally made
products through a process of adaptation.

Definitions of localization from the perspective of Translation Studies
distinguish two stages: the stage of translation and the stage of technical
adaptation; the latter includes the processes of making the content
accessible, usable and culturally suitable for the target audience.

Finally, the author develops his definition of web localization and its place
within translation studies. This definition includes textual, linguistic,
cognitive, communicative, technological, sociological and target-oriented
perspectives and requires cooperation among different agents beyond
translators.

2.  The web localization process: From GILT to web usability

Chapter 2 records the global cycle of web localization, which is seen as part
of the GILT (Globalization, Internationalization, Localization and
Translation) process. Within the GILT cycle, the actual localization process
is just one stage affected by other processes taking place well before it
starts and long after it ends. Various localization types (e.g. videogame
localization, software localization, web localization etc.) are distinguished;
they share several characteristics and, at the same time, show stark
differences.

The localization process is broken down into levels; different agents,
including business managers, localizers, translators, QA (Quality Assurance)
operators and many others are involved in the process at various stages.
Cultural adaptation plays a crucial role since various culture-dependent
issues should be taken into consideration. Last but not least, web usability
has to do with how the localized product is received by the target audience;
the localization process is successful if the localized site is as clear,
concise and efficient as possible.

PART II: CURRENT ISSUES IN LOCALIZATION RESEARCH

3.  Web localization and text

The purpose of chapter 3 is to provide a new definition of ‘text’ in
Translation Studies from an interdisciplinary perspective that includes Text
Linguistics, Applied Linguistics and Translation Studies. Such an analysis is
long overdue since the technological revolution and the emergence of new forms
of hypertextuality, textual segmentation and reuse have challenged all
existing notions of text. Texts have become hypertexts, with different
requirements in terms of cohesion and coherence.

More particularly, the chapter starts with a brief introduction to the
definition of text in linguistics since the structuralists in the 1960s, moves
through text in Translation Studies towards text in web localization. The
notion of text is ultimately defined as “a digital interactive activity that
is coherently developed as a unit and presented to users as such” (p. 51).

Jiménez-Crespo explores further the impact of technologies on translation,
mainly focusing on Content Management Systems (CMS) and Global Management
Systems (GMS), and how they reshape web localization processes. He argues that
instead of having traditional source and target texts, we have
internationalized texts from which all language- and culture-dependent
features have been removed.

The chapter also explores the issue of hypertext theory relevant to web
localization. Contrary to printed texts with linear structure, readers of
hypertexts approach them differently, according to their preferences. Web
localizers adopt a non-linear reading different to that of end users based on
programming criteria. The extensive use of hyperlinks makes their structure
different from that of printed texts. Even the notions of cohesion and
coherence need to be adapted when talking about hypertexts, since, as the
author points out, “coherence building in hypertext depends more on
forward-looking mechanisms rather than on classical cohesive ties between
textual elements” (p. 61). This shift from text to hypertext, the author
argues, especially the openness of hypertext and its dynamic nature, affects
the translation process.

4.  Web localization and digital genres

In chapter 4, Jiménez-Crespo reviews genre theory and its significance for
localization. With the development of internet-mediated communication the last
two decades or so, new digital genres emerge and proliferate. Web localizers
need to know the prototypical features of each one of them in both the source
and the target context in order to follow the appropriate conventions
receivers are accustomed to. Since genres differ among cultures, we realize
why genre theory plays an important role in Translation Studies. The notion of
genre has been used in addition to that of text type since the 1960s in
Linguistics and Discourse Analysis. Texts are classified in various text types
according to their function; they can also be multifunctional, meaning that a
text can serve more than one rhetorical purpose.

According to the author, digital genres have been evolving faster than other
genres due, in part, to the constant evolution of the functionalities of the
web. The distinction between novel and extant digital genres is very
interesting; the former are genres that do not exist in printed form and
emerged in the web whereas the latter have been transferred to the web.

In the rest of the chapter the author develops a framework for analyzing
digital genres in Translation Studies and localization research. The new
parameter that he adds to the ESP (English for Specific Purposes)-inspired
model of genre analysis for web localization is that of interactivity and
functionality of digital genres. The taxonomy of web genres proposed in
empirical research on localization is based on three main criteria: (a) the
purpose of the genre (to advertise, to inform, to entertain, etc.); (b) the
communicative function (expositive, argumentative, persuasive-exhortative),
and (c) the type of communicative process established (community to community,
individual to individual, etc.). All the proposed genres should be treated as
prototypical, embodying the core features, and each one having degrees of
variation.

5.  Web localization and translation quality

In chapter 5, Jiménez-Crespo discusses the issues of translation quality and
evaluation which are inherently controversial for web localization. Being a
relatively new phenomenon, the web does not have a set of canonized criteria
for its evaluation. It is still arguable how much theory and empirical
research we need in order to formulate a theory for web localization quality.
>>From the point of view of the industry, various contextual and procedural
constraints make translation dependent upon various internal and external
quality parameters, e.g., clients’ and end-users’ goals, intended purpose,
text type or genre, cost, time constraints, etc. The author then presents
various theoretical models on QA that have been used so far. The first such
model which is error-based, is the LISA (Localization Industry Standards
Association) QA model, the most widely used for both translation and
localization quality evaluation. Theoretical issues covered in error-based
approaches in general include, among others, definition of the notion of
error, error taxonomies, impact of errors and quality thresholds. Holistic,
textual, pragmatic and corpus-based approaches are also discussed as
alternatives to error-based ones.

The evaluation framework proposed by the author combines and adapts existing
trends to the specifics of web localization, aiming at bridging the gap
between industrial and Translation Studies (TS) perspectives. It is meant to
be used as a template based on which customized evaluation frameworks can be
developed rather than a complete evaluation method per se. The quality of a
localized website is relative to three properties: adequacy, accuracy and
effectiveness. The framework incorporates two possible evaluation
methodologies, the error-based and the holistic one.

6.  Web localization and empirical research

The purpose of chapter 6 is to review the main paradigms, models and methods
used in Translation Studies (TS) which can serve as a basic introduction to
web localization research. It starts from the premise that the lack of
theoretical research on web localization still hinders the development of
empirical research. Within the interdisciplinary context of TS, web
localization emerges as interdisciplinary as well, drawing on fields like
foreign languages, linguistics, computational linguistics, translation,
computer science, graphic design, information management, etc.

Starting from Holmes’ (1988/2000) framework of research in TS, which
subdivided the discipline into Pure and Applied TS, the author reviews its
impact upon Localization Studies (LS), the newly developed field. LS is
divided into Pure and Applied, the former including a theoretical and a
descriptive branch. Applied LS covers most of the existing applied research on
localization, including cases that do not share TS models, methodologies or
theories.

In the rest of the chapter, Jiménez-Crespo gives guidelines on how to apply
research models and paradigms of TS in web localization. Paradigms are defined
as “sets of principles that underline different theories” (p. 143), whereas
models are the “interrelated networks of concepts that we use to discuss
translation or localization” (p. 144). Alternative classifications of models
are discussed.

The chapter continues with a description of the research methodologies and
research design that should be adopted before embarking on research in web
localization; this is summarized in the form of a useful checklist of issues
to be covered while planning for research.

At the end of the chapter, the author discusses the main challenges of
research in the area of web localization with the emphasis placed on
corpus-based studies.

PART III: LOCALIZATION AND THE FUTURE

7.  Web localization and training

The chapter starts from the premise that web localization can no longer be
treated as a peripheral task for translators and should be a core component of
their training. It is therefore essential to build a model of localization
competence which should be seen as a special subset of general translation
competence.

Localization training falls in the middle of the conflict between the
industry, highlighting the technological component, and TS academics, paying
more attention to theoretical training and as a result being accused of
preparing localizers inadequate for the real world market. According to
Jiménez-Crespo, a professional localizer should possess a balance of advanced
translation competence and technological and management skills. In his attempt
to fit localization competence within current translation competence models,
the author explores various issues of translation competence and training
research. The model upon which he places significant emphasis is the model of
the PACTE (Process of Acquisition of Translation Competence and Evaluation)
research group. It has been in development since 1997 and has been tested with
professional translation students and language teachers. It consists of five
interrelated subcompetences: strategic, bilingual, extralinguistic, knowledge
about translation, and instrumental subcompetence.

Jiménez-Crespo builds his model of localization competence on this model,
arguing that the emphasis the industry places on technological or engineering
skills can form part of the instrumental knowledge about translation.

The model then divides localization competence in the following
subcompetences:
a.  instrumental - technological subcompetences
b. knowledge about translation -- localization competences
c.  specialized bilingual and extralinguistic subcompetences
d.  strategic subcompetences.

Each one of them encompasses various skills, abilities and knowledge. The
chapter ends with a discussion of how this model can be turned into a
translation training program and a teaching methodology to account for
different settings. In most cases, localization training is conceptualized as
a specialization within a larger framework, that of translation training,
which means combining translation competence with computational engineering.
The important characteristic of this framework lies in the fact that it aims
to account for the fuzzy area between the translator and the multilingual
developer or engineer; despite the fact that they have different starting
points, they can both develop the additional necessary skills and acquire
localization competence. The chapter ends by arguing that “A shared
localization competence model informed by theoretical and empirical research
in TS and related disciplines and informed by industry experts can represent a
common base for localization training acquisition resulting in better
outcomes” (p. 185).

8.  Future perspectives in localization

The aim of this chapter is to discuss various issues related to the evolution
and future perspectives of web localization in the context of constant
technological developments. Jiménez-Crespo distinguishes two main areas of
interest: the first has to do with the impact of technology in the process of
web localization, and the second with the effect of web localization on TS.
One of the key issues examined is that of professionalization, especially
since Machine Translation and crowdsourcing seem to threaten the status of
translator-localizer as a highly skilled profession in society. Crowdsourcing
emerged and has been developed together with Web 2.0 as volunteer translation
produced by communities of internet users in collaboration, often using
specific platforms. According to the author, this practice does not constitute
any kind of threat to the localization profession.

Last but not least, Jiménez-Crespo discusses the role of Machine Translation
(MT) in web localization and argues that we are moving away from the practice
of using MT engines to automatically localize entire websites towards a
Human-Assisted Machine Translation (HAMT) model meaning that experts perform
post-editing to the output of MT systems.

EVALUATION

The goals of the book and the intended audience are clearly and specifically
described by Jiménez-Crespo. The book fills an important gap in the
interdisciplinary field of web localization, especially since it moves beyond
both the translation-studies perspective and the procedural description of
best professional practices.

As a pedagogical tool, the structure of the book is very user-friendly; there
is a short introduction in every chapter to prepare the reader on the content
and a brief summary at the end. The section on further reading is very
interesting and helpful.

The volume makes an important contribution to the field of web localization
research for several reasons. First, and most significantly, it argues for the
need to treat web localization as a field different from translation.  In
addition to that, it places the localization process in the context of the
global GILT cycle. In this reviewer’s opinion, chapter 2 is one of the most
important ones in the book since it takes into account all the agents involved
in the process arguing for the need to consider not only the product but the
process as well.

Another interesting point raised in the book is that of training in web
localization. The relevant chapter is very helpful. It builds upon various
subcompetencies deriving elements from both theoretical and empirical
research. Because of this, the book is of very high importance for all those
working in the fields of translation studies, once they recognize the need to
offer separate training for web localization.

REFERENCE

Holmes, J.S. 1988/2000. The Name and Nature of Translation Studies. In Venuti
L. (ed.) “The Translation Studies Reader”. London: Routledge, pp. 172-185.


ABOUT THE REVIEWER

Nadia Economou has been working with the Institute for Language and Speech
Processing (ILSP)/ R.C. “Athena” since 1994 and she currently holds the
position of Principal Researcher in the area of Modern Greek language teaching
with multimedia. She holds a B.A. in Linguistics from the University of
Athens, an M.A. in Language Studies from the University of Lancaster U.K. and
a Ph.D. from the same University with specialisation in Educational
Linguistics. In the Department of Educational Technology in ILSP / R.C.
'Athena' she has been involved in the design and development of educational
multimedia software.  She has worked on various projects as a researcher
and/or coordinator. She has published research papers in the areas of language
teaching and learning, CALL and discourse analysis.  Her current research
interests include multimedia technologies in education, language teaching and
learning and discourse analysis.








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