25.1284, Review: Applied Linguistics; Language Acquisition: Comajoan & Salaberry (2013)

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Subject: 25.1284, Review: Applied Linguistics; Language Acquisition: Comajoan & Salaberry (2013)

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Date: Sun, 16 Mar 2014 11:42:10
From: Natalia Jacobsen [ndj5 at georgetown.edu]
Subject: Research Design and Methodology in Studies on L2 Tense and Aspect

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Book announced at http://linguistlist.org/issues/24/24-1410.html

EDITOR: Rafael  Salaberry
EDITOR: Llorenc  Comajoan
TITLE: Research Design and Methodology in Studies on L2 Tense and Aspect
SERIES TITLE: Studies in Second and Foreign Language Education [SSFLE] 2
PUBLISHER: De Gruyter Mouton
YEAR: 2013

REVIEWER: Natalia Dolgova Jacobsen, George Washington University

SUMMARY

In addition to having been a longtime focus of study by theoretical and
historical linguists (e.g., Bybee et al., 1994), tense and aspect,
representing one of the hardest language elements to master by second language
(L2) learners, have also received quite a bit of attention from second
language acquisition (SLA) researchers (see, for instance, Bardovi-Harlig,
2000).

However, the issue of interaction between research design and methodology and
the acquisition of tense and aspect has not been sufficiently addressed in
previous literature. Accordingly, the purpose of the volume is to explore
methodological characteristics of studies that aim to contribute to our
understanding of how learners of different languages acquire these concepts.
The volume includes a wide range of perspectives, both quantitative and
qualitative. It would be of interest to researchers and graduate students
interested in theoretical and experimental issues related to L2 tense and
aspect.

Following a short introductory chapter by the editors, the volume is divided
into two parts.

Part One (‘Theoretical representations of tense and aspect in L2 studies’,
Chapters 1-4) presents different theoretical approaches to the study of tense
and aspect. Part Two (‘Research design and methodology in L2 studies of tense
and aspect’, Chapters 5-12) covers a wide range of methodologies and
constraints associated with empirical studies on L2 tense and aspect. The
volume also includes a section with author biographies and a subject index at
the end.

Chapter 1, ‘A Cognitive Grammar perspective on tense and aspect’, is written
by Susanne Niemeier. Opening the theoretical sequence of the book, this
chapter presents a cognitive linguistic analysis of tense and aspect. The
author begins with a brief introduction to the field of cognitive linguistics
and cognitive grammar, in general, and then demonstrates how the English tense
and aspect systems can be explained using Langacker’s (1987) Cognitive
Grammar, as well as Mental Space Theory (Fauconnier, 1994). Cognitive
linguistics provides a set of tools and concepts that allow explaining
seemingly idiosyncratic aspects of language in an explicit and straightforward
manner, which may be of particular use for language learners. Accordingly,
throughout the chapter, Niemeier emphasizes language teaching applications of
cognitive linguistic approaches to tense and aspect.

In Chapter 2 (‘The Spanish preterite and imperfect from a cognitive point of
view’), Aintzane Doiz presents a cognitive linguistic explanation for
aspectual meanings of the Spanish preterite and imperfect tenses. Similar to
the author of the first chapter, Doiz bases her analysis upon Langacker’s
cognitive linguistic representation of tenses (1987), as well as upon his
characterization of virtual and non-virtual events (Langacker, 2009). The
author further applies these cognitive linguistic tenets to the Spanish
preterite and imperfect tenses, providing two sets of key distinctions between
them: the actual occurrence/property reading and virtuality/nonvirtuality.

Chapter 3 (‘Frequency-based grammar and the acquisition of tense and aspect in
L2 learning’) is written by Nick Ellis; he aims to investigate the role of
frequency-based approaches to grammar in language cognition and SLA. In the
first half of the article, Ellis examines basic characteristics of frequency
in relation to concept learning and SLA, and further analyzes factors
contributing to construction learning (namely, input frequency, form (salience
and perception), prototypicality, and contingency of form-meaning mapping). In
the second half of the article, Ellis reviews prior research addressing the
Aspect Hypothesis and then provides a more detailed example of a tense-aspect
acquisition study by Wulff et al. (2009), as well as research by various
authors with Spanish L2 data. In sum, Ellis argues for a usage-based model of
language that allows for integrating dynamic, multivariate and interactive
factors into a cohesive representation of language acquisition processes.

The last chapter of the first part (Chapter 4 -- ‘Generative approaches to the
L2 acquisition of temporal-aspectual mood systems’) is written by Dalila Ayoun
and Jason Rothman. Unlike the previous three chapters that stem from
usage-based approaches to language analysis, this chapter represents an
overview of L2 tense, aspect, and modality acquisition from a generative
perspective. The authors provide a detailed overview of empirical studies in
generative SLA, primarily focusing on syntax and other grammar elements across
world languages (namely, L2 English, L2 Spanish, L2 French, L2 Portuguese, and
heritage/American Russian). The authors argue that learners in instructed SLA
settings show gradual improvement and are able to ultimately acquire tense,
aspect and modality systems in their respective L2s; consequently, adults
should not be considered deficient, as far as their acquisition of tense and
aspect is concerned.

The second part of the volume, per the suggestion provided by the editors in
their introduction to the volume, can be further divided into three parts
(excluding the final chapter). Chapters 5 and 6 address theoretical issues
standing behind research design in tense-aspect studies. Chapters 7, 8, and 9
concern methodological analysis (namely, designing tasks and defining and
coding data) of tense-aspect data. Chapters 10 and 11 address qualitative and
quantitative approaches to data analysis. Finally, Chapter 12 represents an
overview of tense and aspect analyses across different theories and
methodologies.

In Chapter 5, ‘Research design: A two-way predicational system is better than
a four-way approach’, Paz González analyzes aspect in Spanish and argues, that
“a two-way predicational system is more appropriate for the learning of
Spanish as a second language (L2) than a four-way approach” (p. 159). To
support her stance, the author provides a theoretical description of the
Spanish aspectual system, in particular, distinguishing between predicational
and grammatical aspect. González further presents a discussion of native
speaker intuitions and an overview of the two types of forms in learner
interlanguage. After reviewing the tenets of the Aspect Hypothesis and the
Default Past Tense Hypothesis, the author presents an alternative approach --
the Predication-effect Hypothesis -- and explains how it is supported by
existing data.

In Chapter 6, ‘Research design: operationalizing and testing hypotheses’, M.
Rafael Salaberry discusses how theoretical assumptions, operationalizations,
and methodologies utilized in studies on investigating tense and aspect may
affect the outcomes of those studies. The author specifically focuses on a
single aspect of tense/aspect -- iterativity -- in Portuguese and Spanish.
After providing a general background for the concept and presenting an
overview of findings on the L2 acquisition of iterativity, Salaberry discusses
three ways to operationalize the iterative-habitual contrast (namely, basic
versus derived-level interpretations, accidental versus non-accidental
generalizations, and the actual versus structural plane) and explains how
these distinctions led to different hypotheses and differing methodological
features of study designs (e.g., through the discourse of language prompts).
The author ultimately recommends that providing discourse context and
extensive details regarding theoretical assumptions should become a more
standard part of reporting in new L2 acquisition studies.

Chapter 7, ‘Research design: From text to task’, written by Kathleen
Bardovi-Harlig, examines the use of open-ended tasks in L2 research. Unlike
controlled production tasks, open-ended tasks do not aim to limit learners’
production in any way; rather, they target the type of language that learners
would most likely produce in a natural setting/conversation. Bardovi-Harlig
first discusses the role of communicative tasks in SLA literature overall and
then analyzes each task type in greater detail. More specifically, the author
focuses on conversational narrative (both written and oral, elicited and
personal) and nonnarrative (description, argument and irrealis) texts,
providing an overview of the existing base of knowledge, as well as
recommendations on using these task types in future research. She concludes
that “the data which extended discourse provides can be used to test a wide
range of hypotheses and to understand form-to-meaning and meaning-to-form
associations in developing L2 tense-aspect systems” (p. 260).

Chapter 8, ‘Defining and coding data: Lexical aspect in L2 studies’, written
by Yasuhiro Shirai, addresses the issue of lexical aspect across languages.
More specifically, lexical aspect subtypes can be classified following a
number of principles. The classic categorization by Vendler (1957) includes
four types (namely, states, activities, accomplishments, and achievements) and
has been used by many researchers working with data from different languages
(e.g., English, French, Japanese, Spanish, Korean, and Catalan). However, the
analyses highlighting universal features do not address situations of
cross-linguistic variation, nor do they address the L1-L2 differences in given
languages. After going over a number of issues related to those drawbacks,
Shirai presents a description of an aspect classification system first
introduced in Shirai and Andersen (1995). The author claims that the proposed
procedure should be able to improve the methodological basis for new studies,
and prevent difficulties with aspect classification.

In Chapter 9 (‘Defining and coding data: Narrative discourse grounding in L2
studies’), Llorenç Comajoan provides an overview of research methodologies
used to study discourse grounding. He starts with a detailed discussion of the
Discourse Hypothesis and existing definitions of narrative discourse. After
that, Comajoan focuses on an analysis of definitions for foreground and
background, organizing his discussion in a chronological manner, starting with
what he refers to as ‘early’ definitions before moving on to ‘critical’
definitions. In the final part of the chapter, Comajoan focuses on discourse
grounding in L2 studies, distinguishing between form-oriented and
meaning-oriented approaches, and then analyzes the issues related to data
coding in studies investigating the discourse hypothesis, in particular,
morphology-syntax interface, coding difficulties related to text types, and
ways to interpret learner’s meaning.

Chapter 10 (‘Data analysis: Quantitative approaches’), written by Robert
Bayley, focuses on problems that arise when applying quantitative analyses to
L2 data capturing the acquisition of tense and aspect. Bayley starts by going
over the steps necessary to prepare data for statistical operations, such as
coding and categorizing verb types. The next part of the article aims to
“consider appropriate analysis for different kinds of data used to examine the
acquisition of tense and aspect” (p. 359), in particular, focusing on
multivariate analysis (e.g., using VARBRUL to analyze the acquisition of the
Chinese perfective particle ‘–le’). The last two parts of the chapter focus on
testing alternative hypotheses when analyzing L2 tense/aspect data and on
using implicational scaling as a method that provides advantages for capturing
individual speaker patterns. This chapter essentially characterizes how
different variables can interact with each other in creating patterns in data.

In Chapter 11, ‘Data analysis: The qualitative analysis of actionality in
learner language’, Anna Giacalone-Ramat and Stefano Rastelli focus on
qualitative aspects of analyzing learner data. Qualitative analysis does not
entail using statistical procedures to prove or refute hypotheses associated
with research questions; instead, findings emerge and are fine-tuned in the
process of data examination. The authors argue for the value of using
qualitative analyses that make it possible to disentangle learners’ authentic
views from the pre-imposed views of researchers. Giacalone-Ramat and Rastelli
further provide a qualitative analysis of representations of actionality (verb
semantics) in L2 Italian learner data. In the main part of the paper, the
authors apply principles of qualitative analysis to that data from
beginner/low intermediate Chinese learners of Italian. The qualitative
analysis highlights the role of cross-linguistic evidence of actional
underspecification. The authors conclude that actionality is learned and
demonstrate that qualitative analyses can “tap more directly onto learners’
semantic representations” (p. 418).

Finally, the concluding chapter of the volume (Chapter 12 - ‘Integrating the
analyses of tense and aspect across research and methodological frameworks’),
written by M. Rafael Salaberry, Llorenç Comajoan and Paz González, provides an
overview of perspectives presented within the volume. The authors highlight
the three key themes covered by the volume, namely: relevant theoretical
constructs, research methodologies, and results of findings from those
different theoretical frameworks and methodologies. The part on theoretical
frameworks addresses theoretical framing of dependent and independent
variables in L2 tense-aspect studies. In the part on methodology trends, the
authors highlight seven factors that need to be taken into account when
designing a tense-aspect study (specifically: types of data and data
collection procedures, selection and use of operational tests,
language-specific characteristics of tense-aspectual contrasts, the effect of
learning environment, types of input, subject-related factors, and the
definition of ultimate attainment in L2 tense-aspect acquisition) (p. 432).
They particularly stress the importance of multivariate analyses and easily
replicable approaches to data coding and interpretation. Next, they evaluate
the usefulness of integrating quantitative and qualitative methods. Last but
not least, the authors highlight a few pedagogical considerations for the
issue of explicit instruction of tense and aspect.

EVALUATION

This volume presents a considerable range of perspectives on research design
methodology for tense and aspect. As mentioned earlier, the first four
chapters highlight theoretical approaches, while the rest of the chapters
(excluding Chapter 12) address issues related to testing these theories within
the constraints of specific designs and methodologies. The combination of
findings from the volume covers a very wide spectrum, providing insights into
researching tense and aspect in a whole range of language combinations, and
offering perspectives into different parts of the research process. This book
would be particularly helpful for graduate students who are interested in
studying the acquisition of tense and aspect, but who are not yet certain
about the methodology they should select or the consequences of their possible
choices. This book gives a general introduction to a wide range of methods and
approaches, and as such, serves as an excellent resource for beginning
scholars.

However, because the range of languages and design methodologies is so wide,
each topic cannot be covered in sufficient depth. The chapters also represent
somewhat different writing styles and levels of detail, which affects cohesion
of the entire volume to a certain extent.

As mentioned in the previous section of this review, the majority of the
chapters represent theoretical and generative approaches to SLA, with only
three chapters (1, 2, and 3) conveying usage-based perspectives. Since
usage-based approaches to language analysis are becoming increasingly more
mainstream, perhaps the next edition of the volume could aim to represent them
to a greater extent.

The other drawback of the volume is the relative paucity of reported findings
that might be directly relevant to pedagogical issues regarding tense and
aspect. As Salaberry, Comajoan and González propose in their concluding
chapter: “the explicit instruction of tense and aspect marking is central to
most second language courses, and as such they clearly play an important role
in grammatically focused pedagogical materials” (p. 440). Furthermore, tense
and aspect also represent a foundational element for the acquisition of other
grammatical categories, such as modals and conditionals. Keeping this
consideration in mind, it is surprising that the volume included only two
chapters (1 and 2) that explicitly highlighted pedagogical implications.

In the grand scheme of things, however, the drawbacks are relatively minor in
comparison to the significant value of the book. Overall, the range of topics
and perspectives included into this volume provides a highly relevant and much
needed contribution to the field of SLA and will be of help to anyone studying
the L2 acquisition process of tense and aspect across languages.

REFERENCES:

Bardovi-Harlig, Kathleen. 2000. Tense and aspect in second language
acquisition: Form, meaning, and use. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.

Bybee, Joan, Perkins, Revere, and William Pagliuca. 2000. The Evolution of
grammar: Tense, aspect, and modality in the languages of the world. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.

Fauconnier, Gilles. 1994. Mental spaces: Aspects of meaning construction in
natural language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Langacker, Ronald. 1987. Foundations of cognitive grammar. Vol. 1: Theoretical
prerequisities. Stanford: Stanford University Press

Langacker, Ronald. 2009. Investigations in Cognitive Grammar. Berlin: Mouton
de Gruyter.

Shirai, Yasuhiro, and Roger Andersen. 1995. The acquisition of tense-aspect
morphology: A prototype account. Language 71. 743-762.

Vendler, Zeno. 1957.  Verbs and times. Philosophical Review 66. 143-160.

Wulff, Stephanie, Ellis, Nick, Römer, Ute, Bardovi-Harlig, Kathleen, & Chelsea
LeBlanc. 2009. The acquisition of tense-aspect: Converging evidence from
corpora, cognition and learner constructions. Modern Language Journal 93.
354-369.


ABOUT THE REVIEWER

Natalia Dolgova Jacobsen is currently Visiting Assistant Professor in English
for Academic Purposes at George Washington University (Washington, DC). She
earned her PhD in Applied Linguistics at Georgetown University in 2012. Her
dissertation addressed instructed acquisition of English conditional phrases
by advanced learners. Her research interests include second language writing,
applied cognitive linguistics, pedagogical grammar, task-based language
teaching, and using corpus linguistics for language teaching.








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