25.3756, Review: Language Acquisition: Garc ía Mayo, Gutierrez Mangado, Martínez Adriá =?UTF-8?Q?n_?=(eds.) (2014)

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LINGUIST List: Vol-25-3756. Thu Sep 25 2014. ISSN: 1069 - 4875.

Subject: 25.3756, Review: Language Acquisition: García Mayo, Gutierrez Mangado, Martínez Adrián (eds.) (2014)

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Date: Thu, 25 Sep 2014 12:27:31
From: Charles Nagle [cln22 at georgetown.edu]
Subject: Contemporary Approaches to Second Language Acquisition

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Book announced at http://linguistlist.org/issues/25/25-603.html

EDITOR: María del Pilar  García Mayo
EDITOR: María Junkal  Gutierrez Mangado
EDITOR: María  Martínez Adrián
TITLE: Contemporary Approaches to Second Language Acquisition
SERIES TITLE: AILA Applied Linguistics Series 9
PUBLISHER: John Benjamins
YEAR: 2014

REVIEWER: Charles Nagle, Georgetown University

Review's editor: Anthony Aristar

SUMMARY

Contemporary Approaches to Second Language Acquisition, a collection of eleven
articles and an afterword edited by María del Pilar García Mayo, María Junkal
Gutierrez Mangado, and María Martínez Adrián, brings together experts
representing a range of approaches to second language acquisition (SLA) to
provide graduate students and researchers in SLA, applied linguistics, and
linguistics an overview of relevant research conducted within a selection of
major contemporary approaches to SLA. As the authors point out, SLA is an
interdisciplinary field, and for that very reason scholars are expected to be
familiar with the diverse theoretical and methodological paradigms that
characterize it. This book goes a long way in helping students and researchers
to accomplish that goal, providing clear, concise descriptions and convincing
empirical evidence.

The volume covers the following approaches: Generative Theory, Systemic
Functional Linguistics, interaction theory, Skill Acquisition Theory, Input
Processing Theory, Processability Theory, Sociocultural Theory, usage-based
approach to L2 spoken syntax, Connectionism, Dynamic Systems Theory, and
electro-physiological approaches.

The chapters generally follow a common format, introduction, empirical
findings, future directions and pedagogical implications, but, more
importantly, they situate each approach relative to other theoretical
perspectives and locate it within the broader field of SLA, interleaving
theory, research, and practice. For example, in chapter 10, de Bot, Lowie,
Thorne, and Verspoor argue that Dynamic Systems Theory offers a more
comprehensive framework within which to approach second language development
(SLD) since it integrates both social and linguistic theories of SLD. This
naturally aligns well with major themes that have recently emerged in the
field such as mixed methodology research, the social turn in SLA, and calls to
re-conceptualize SLA in terms of learner development rather than attainment
of a native norm.

Overall, then, the chapters address L2 knowledge, development, and use from
multiple perspectives, providing readers with insights into each approach,
while also building a roadmap for interested researchers to follow as they
work within and successfully combine the approaches outlined in the book.

In “What is easy and what is hard to acquire in a second language,” Roumyana
Slabakova reviews the generative approach to SLA whose aim is to “identify the
harder and easier to acquire properties based on their inherent
characteristics as defined by linguistic theory” (p. 6). She then provides an
overview of the basic tenets of UG before presenting evidence that supports
the Bottleneck Hypothesis, which claims that functional morphology is the
property that is harder to acquire for learners. To evaluate the tenability of
the Bottleneck Hypothesis, she brings to bear data demonstrating that
functional morphology is not only difficult for L2 learners, but also for
native speakers with lower levels of education. She also discusses research at
the syntax-semantics and syntax-discourse interfaces, before concluding with
a summary of findings and the pedagogical implications of research in the
generative tradition.

In “Systemic Functional approaches to second language acquisition in school
settings,” Ana Llinares traces the origin and development of the Systemic
Functional Linguistic model (Halliday and Matthiesssen, 2014), considering
both what SFL contributes to SLA and what they have in common. Specifically,
the chapter focuses on SFL approaches to language use among younger
(pre-primary/primary) EFL learners and genre and register theoretic accounts
of L2 writing in secondary school in EFL and content-and-language integrated
programs. Two major findings emerge from her summary: (1) genre and register
theory offers a discourse-based approach to writing development; (2) language
use reflects discipline-specific norms that are learned in the process of
studying the discipline, but not all discursive features are available to L2
learners. A discussion of how SFL interfaces with other approaches to SLA
follows, where Llinares discusses the utility of combining SFL with
conversation analysis and other frameworks to the study of SLA phenomena such
as corrective feedback. The chapter concludes with a section on research and
pedagogy emphasizing the interdisciplinary links between SFL and other
approaches and recapitulating the findings of the SFL studies presented
earlier in the chapter.

In “From input, output and comprehension to negotiation, evidence, and
attention,” Teresa Pica addresses the input-knowledge-output continuum,
focusing on interaction research and the capacity of recasts to provide
contextualized, immediate feedback to the learner,. Pica goes on to discuss
the notion of task, noting specific tasks (e.g., spot the difference, jigsaw,
etc.) that provide ample opportunities for the type of interaction that is
associated with development, and calls for more classroom-based research that
investigates the systematic effects of task-based interaction in languages
other than English, as well as interaction in computer-assisted language
learning.

In “Skill Acquisition Theory and the role of practice in L2 development,” Roy
Lyster and Masatoshi Sato give an overview of Skill Acquisition Theory, which
is a theory of how language processing becomes more procedural: “Skill
Acquisition Theory focuses on the shift in knowledge (i.e., developmental
processes) and how practice can facilitate this process, rather than on the
nature of the types of knowledge and how they do or do not coexist in
cognitive structures” (p. 75). Because the instructional setting itself often
shapes the type of knowledge students develop, the authors argue that
instructors must make use of a range of form-focused activities that both
encourage learners to analyze language and become more aware of its properties
and afford opportunities for more spontaneous dialogue and interaction,
concluding that “not only types of practice should be carefully chosen to
trigger a successful and desired proceduralization loop depending on the
specific skills that L2 learners need, but also different types of practice
should be provided to learners because acquiring an L2 involved a broad range
of skills” (p. 80). The chapter concludes with recommendations for language
pedagogy, emphasizing the importance of truly communicative, interactive tasks
that provide the learner with essential feedback in meaningful contexts.

In “The Input Processing Theory in second language acquisition,” Alessandro
Benati describes VanPatten’s (e.g., 1996, 2004) Input Processing Theory (IPT),
a set of principles that codifies the constraints learners face when
processing a foreign language. For example, according to the First Noun
Principle, learners tend to interpret the first noun phrase of the sentence as
the agent, which may cause problems for English speakers learning L2 Spanish
since Spanish allows OVS and OSV in addition to the SVO order that
characterizes English. However, lexical semantics, context, or event
probabilities help learners to parse sentences correctly even when they do not
follow canonical word order. According to Benati, the pedagogical implication
of this research is then to engage learners in activities that push them to
develop and deploy alternative processing strategies that permit them to
process the L2 in a more target-like fashion. The chapter concludes with
implications for research.

In “Processability Theory: Explaining developmental sequences,” Gisela
Håkansson reviews Pienemann’s (1998) Processability Theory (PT). At the heart
of PT is the notion that “the learner’s route to the target language is
interpreted as a development of processing procedures needed to handle
grammatical structures” (p. 112). Pienemann’s original hierarchy outlined five
stages of processing ranging from simple lemma access to subordinate clause
procedures. Throughout the chapter, Håkansson couches PT within a
developmental approach to SLA where emphasis is on how the learner develops
over time rather than on the learner vis-à-vis a standard norm. She also
touches on such critical issues as how to operationalize emergence of a
processing stage in PT, L1 transfer within a PT perspective, and how a PT
approach might also be applied to bilingual development.

“Sociocultural Theory and second language development: Theoretical foundations
and insights from research” by Gabriela Adela Gánem-Gutiérrez deals with
Sociocultural Theory (SCT). Gánem-Gutiérrez discusses SCT in relation to three
main points: L2 knowledge, L2 development, and the L2 learning environment.
Each section begins with a theoretical approach to the topic followed by
empirical research. As regards L2 knowledge, she discusses the relevance of
Slobin’s (1996) thinking-for-speaking framework for SCT, which posits that
language shapes thought; for example, the way motion is encoded in the L1
shapes the way it is encoded in the L2. Next, she outlines the ‘zone of
proximal development’ and its relationship to L2 development, reviewing
research that suggests that verbalization and gesture are tools that scaffold
language learning. Finally, she discusses the central role learner
characteristics and the learning environment play in an SCT approach.

In “Investigating L2 spoken syntax: A Usage-based perspective,” Regina
Weinert, María Basterrechea, and María del Pilar García Mayo examine some of
the unique properties of spoken syntax (e.g., unintegrated syntax, preference
for main over subordinate clauses, etc.), which stand to inform not only the
types of questions we ask of L2 speech, but also how we characterize it. The
authors present data on ''because/cos'' and ''if'' clauses from native and L2
language corpora (LOCNEC & IkerSPEAK) to shed light on the issue of complexity
in L1/L2 speech, drawing two main conclusions: (1) researchers must consider
the discursive structure in which a phrase appears in order to analyze it; (2)
speakers set up clausal structures that vary in complexity depending on what
they wish to express. As the authors point out, “oral proficiency and
approximating native-like spoken language use do not necessarily equal
syntactic complexity, rather it is the achievement of discourse-pragmatic
aims through the appropriate, functionally, interactionally and socially
relevant choice of structures in specific contexts” (p. 172).

“Connectionist models of second language acquisition” by Ping Li and Xiaowei
Zhao addresses connectionist modeling which conceptualizes the brain as a
processor where processing units and the connections between them vary in
strength and pattern of activation. Li and Zhao first discuss models based on
supervised (e.g., the ‘Simple Recurrent Network’) and unsupervised (e.g., the
self-organizing map) learning algorithms. They turn then to how these
computational models actually go about the task of learning. Finally, they
consider connectionism in light of Optimality Theory and the Competition
Model, as well as how connectionism has attempted to model multilingualism and
bilingual learning, arguing that computational models provide unique insights
into SLA since they can strictly control variables such as age of acquisition:
“Computational models can help delineate the picture of the complex
interactive dynamics involved in the acquisition and organization of not just
one language, but multiple linguistic systems” (p. 196).

In “Dynamic Systems Theory as a comprehensive theory of second language
development,” Kees de Bot, Wander Lowie, Steven L. Thorne, and Marjolijn
Verspoor characterize Dynamic Systems Theory (DST) as a theory of second
language development (SLD) that assigns a central role to time and how
multiple subsystems, be they social or linguistic, interact and mutually
influence one another. A key concept to DST is that there are no closed
systems; rather, all systems are in constant interaction in a multidimensional
state space. The authors discuss DST in light of social and linguistic
theories of SLD, as well as theories specific to SLA, arguing that DST in fact
is a broader framework that encompasses the social, linguistic, and cognitive
dimensions of SLA.

In “Electrophysiology of second language processing: The past, present, and
future,” the final edited chapter of the volume, Laura Sabourin, Christie
Brien, and Marie-Claude Tremblay review neuroimaging research in SLA and what
it reveals about language processing. The authors begin with a discussion of
the major electrophysiological signatures associated with language processing
such as the mismatch negativity (MMN), N400, and P600, the types of tasks that
elicit them, and how they are to be interpreted. They then review ERP research
on L2 speech perception, and lexical and syntactic processing, suggesting that
neuroimaging techniques offer a measure of language processing complementary
to more traditional behavioral measures. Each subsection provides an overview
of research in that area (e.g. speech perception), draws relevant conclusions,
and closes with suggestions for future research.

The volume closes with an afterword by Jason Rothman and Bill VanPatten, “On
multiplicity and mutual exclusivity,” where the authors take stock of the
diverse approaches discussed in previous chapters, situating them relative to
four larger questions: “Why are there various theories about adult SLA?”, “How
do the various theories treat the S, the L, and the A of SLA?”, “How does
environmental context influence the various theories?”, and “To what extent
are the various theories and frameworks in the present volume ‘in
competition’?”. They also discuss the distinction between mental
representation and skill development and conclude with the bigger picture of
SLA which involves multiple theories that warrant further investigation before
a consensus is to be reached regarding the mechanisms that drive second
language learning.

EVALUATION

One of the main strengths of ''Contemporary Approaches to Second Language
Acquisition'' is the links it establishes between a diverse set of approaches.
The organization of the chapters themselves supports these connections since
each chapter broadly addresses L2 knowledge, development, and use, providing a
framework that helps the reader to compare and contrast the approaches
discussed in the book. Likewise, it is clear that each contributor has made an
effort to outline the ways in which a particular approach draws from, or
contributes to, other approaches. For example, in the first chapter, Slabakova
observes that electrophysiological and reaction time methodologies are
providing new insights into language processing from a generative perspective,
though she does not cite any references to that point. Indeed, what becomes
apparent is that the approaches in the volume do not stand alone, but exist
within a theoretical-methodological network or toolkit from which scholars
draw: Llinares explores how research from a Systemic Functional Linguistic
perspective draws from the sociolinguistic paradigm by relying on conversation
analysis; chapters 3, 5 and 6 on input and interaction, Input Processing
Theory, and Processability Theory seem to act in concert to offer a
comprehensive account of SLA as process and product; Li and Zhao’s chapter on
connectionism emphasizes commonalities between computational models and
Optimality Theory and the Competition Model, showing how computational
modeling has contributed to and, indeed, been informed by, models of L1
acquisition and L1/L2 processing and lexical activation; and the chapter on
Dynamic Systems Theory attempts to bring together social and cognitive
approaches to SLA. As de Bot, Lowie, Thorne, and Verspoor argue, “DST can be
considered a comprehensive theory in that its core principles can be seen to
obtain at multiple temporal and spatial scales and in application to dynamics
occurring along the brain-body-world continuum” (p. 200). Thus, to borrow
from DST terminology, this volume is multifaceted at varying levels of
granularity. On one hand, the structure of the book helps readers to compare,
contrast, and evaluate how each approach conceptualizes core concepts of SLA
(L2 knowledge, development, and use). And, on the other hand, each chapter
also attempts to consider the linguistic, cognitive, and social dimensions of
SLA, touching on topics such as contexts of use, learner differences and how
they interact with context, and linguistic features and subdomains.

Though this edited collection is clearly concerned with the current state of
SLA, authors are keen to suggest areas of future research. Graduate students
who are just beginning to conduct research will appreciate these sections
since they both provide specific areas worthy of further investigation and
highlight how the field has developed, illuminating the broader trajectory of
SLA research at large. For example, Pica calls for more research into
interaction in computerassisted language learning, a field growing in
popularity as more and more language learners turn to online and hybrid
courses, and Lyster and Sato suggest that researchers continue to explore
connections between instructional practices, L2 knowledge, and educational
setting. In fact, calls for more research at the interface of pedagogy,
cognition, and theory are typical of this volume and reflect the
multidimensional character of SLA itself.

Aside from the clear theoretical and methodological insights the volume
provides, language instructors will also find the volume useful since many
chapters address pedagogy. In particular, the chapters on input, interaction,
and processing not only outline the pedagogical implications of research, but
also mention specific activities that seem to drive development. Pica mentions
spot-the-difference and information gap tasks, explaining that they provide
opportunities for interaction and contextually-sensitive feedback within a
communicative framework. Although she does not explain how to create or
implement them, she does provide references that do, “Pica, Kang and Sauro
(2006) and Pica, Sauro, and Lee (2007) have developed a method for devising
Spot the Difference, Jigsaw, and Grammar Decision Making tasks that help
students in content-based language courses to notice low salience forms and
features that are difficult to master from course content alone” (p. 60).
Although it is laudable that most chapters do address pedagogy in some form,
many suffer from the same issue, namely, abstract pedagogical implications and
practices that are not accompanied by an example activity. Thus, readers will
likely be able to create activities based on Slabakova’s recommendation that
“practicing the functional morphology in language classrooms should happen in
meaningful, plausible sentences where the syntactic effects and semantic
import of the morphology is absolutely transparent” (p. 25), though the author
does not give an example of sentences that conform to those properties. On the
other hand, the sections on pedagogy generally tailor recommendations to the
relevant instructional context such as content-and-language integrated
programs (Llinares, Chapter 2), which reinforces the notion that practice must
take into consideration the specific context in which learning is taking
place.

A few additional particular points bear mentioning. First, on the whole,
researchers address relevant criticism and present alternative viewpoints.
However, in Benati’s chapter on Input Processing Theory, it is surprising that
he does not situate IPT relative to other process models of SLA (e.g., Gass &
Selinker, 2001) given the wealth of research that has focused on SLA as a
process and on the input-intake-knowledge sequence. Furthermore, though the
volume is not intended as an exhaustive account of contemporary approaches, it
is disappointing that no chapter addressed models of second language
pronunciation development such as the Speech Learning Model (e.g., Flege,
1995) or the L2 Perceptual Assimilation Model (Best & Tyler, 2007). The fact
that the volume does not include some mention of these models unfortunately
serves to perpetuate the notion that pronunciation is a discipline that falls
outside the purview of SLA proper. Though many of the theories discussed in
the volume are in fact applicable to pronunciation, the SLM and PAML2 are
indeed contemporary approaches to phonological SLA and their inclusion would
have strengthened the scope of the book.

Overall, this edited collection of eleven papers offers important insights
into contemporary approaches to SLA, future paths of research, and pedagogical
practices. In that sense, there is something for everyone. The chapters,
though capable of standing as independent units, are clearly written and
converge into the larger vision of the volume which is to provide a more
comprehensive account of SLA as “a multifaceted phenomenon that needs to be
considered from multiple perspective sin order to gain insights into the
complex process of acquiring and using a new language” (p. 1).

REFERENCES

Best, C. T. and Tyler, M. D. (2007). Nonnative and second-language speech
perception: Commonalities and complementarities. In J. Munro and O.S. Bohn
(Eds.), Second language speech learning: The role of language experience in
speech perception and production (pp. 13–34). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

Flege, J. E. (1995). Second language speech learning: Theory, findings, and
problems. In W. Strange (Ed.), Speech perception and linguistic experience:
Issues in cross-language research (pp. 233–277). Baltimore, MD: York Press.

Gass, S. M. and Selinker, L. (2001). An integrated view of second language
acquisition. In S. M. Gass and  L. Selinker (Eds.), Second language
acquisition: An introductory course (2nd ed.) (pp. 398–413). Mahwah, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Halliday, M. A. K. and Matthiessen, C. M. I. M. (2014). An introduction to
functional grammar (4th ed.). New York: Routledge.

Pienemann, M. (1998). Language processing and second language development:
Processability theory. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

Slobin, D. (1996). From ‘thought and language’ to ‘thinking for speaking’. In
S. Gumperz and S. Levinson (Eds.), Rethinking linguistic relativity (pp.
70–96). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

VanPatten, B. (1996). Input processing and grammar instruction: Theory and
research. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

VanPatten, B. (2004). Input processing in second language acquisition. In B.
VanPatten (Ed.), Processing instruction: Theory, research, and commentary (pp.
5–31). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

ABOUT THE REVIEWER

Charles Nagle is a Ph.D. candidate at Georgetown University in Spanish
Linguistics where he teaches courses in Spanish and Catalan language and
linguistics. He specializes in second language pronunciation development with
broad research interests in individual differences in second language
acquisition and second language development in study abroad settings, working
primarily with adult learners of Spanish as a second or foreign language.

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