31.2365, Review: Cognitive Science: Belkhir (2020)

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LINGUIST List: Vol-31-2365. Fri Jul 24 2020. ISSN: 1069 - 4875.

Subject: 31.2365, Review: Cognitive Science: Belkhir (2020)

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Date: Fri, 24 Jul 2020 10:06:01
From: Marta Gasiorowska [marta.n.gasiorowska at gmail.com]
Subject: Cognition and Language Learning

 
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Book announced at http://linguistlist.org/issues/31/31-1129.html

EDITOR: Sadia  Belkhir
TITLE: Cognition and Language Learning
PUBLISHER: Cambridge Scholars Publishing
YEAR: 2020

REVIEWER: Marta Aleksandra Gasiorowska

SUMMARY

‘Cognition and Language Learning’ is a compilation of papers by nine different
authors which have been assembled into a single volume by an editor (also a
contributor), Sadia Belkhir. Contributors to this volume include PhD
researchers, early-career academics and lecturers. The collection grew out of
a symposium held under the same title in February 2019 at Mouloud Mammeri
University (Algeria). It is aimed as an exploration of ‘how cognitive aspects
featuring language are relevant to the field of educational linguistics’
(p.10). A brief review of the content page reveals a wide variety of concepts
and phenomena dealt with in this volume, promising it to be an insightful
read. 

The first chapter provides an introduction by the editor, Sadia Belkhir, in
which she briefly maps out the connection between cognition and language in
reference to some of the prominent theories in the field of linguistic,
psychology and second language acquisition (SLA). She also traces how language
learning approaches have evolved over the last couple of decades from
behavioural to cognitive. The author makes an attempt at providing readers
with a brief overview of the synergies emerging between the two research areas
as a result of work undertaken by scholars. A handful of objectives for this
volume have been set out in a short paragraph with the main ones being to fill
the gap for ‘innovative research that examines the interrelationship between
cognition and the process of language learning’ and offer a ‘multidisciplinary
perspective’ (p.5). The rest of this introductory chapter is a panorama of the
topics that are subsequently dealt with in the volume.

In Chapter 2 Kamila Ammour sets out to shed light on metacognitive awareness
and strategies deployed during reading of narrative texts by learners of
English as a Foreign Language (EFL). Seventy five participants recruited from
the student population at Mouloud Mammeri University took part in the study.
Data was elicited from the participants with the help of a short questionnaire
adapted from the Metacognitive Awareness of Reading Strategies Inventory
(Mokhtari & Reichard 2000). Data analysis carried out by Ammour revealed a
number of trends. Planning strategies such as setting a goal before reading a
narrative text and asking oneself questions about the text format before
reading were some of the most widely reported strategies. As Ammour points out
these strategies are associated with the ‘pre-reading’ stage and indicate a
high level of metacognitive awareness arising during readers’ first encounter
with the text. On the other hand, strategies deployed and reported by the
participants mid-reading task are limited to trying to guess the meaning of an
unknown word from context, slowing down and focussing attention on important
information when encountered in text. According to Ammour the so-called
‘word-attack’ strategies are symptomatic of a lack of metacognitive awareness
amongst participants, which prevents them from critically engaging with the
text. This reported variance in terms of EFL readers’ metacognitive engagement
with narrative texts during a reading task carries into the post-reading
stage. Ammour stipulates that this reluctance to deploy complex metacognitive
strategies during and post-reading can be attributed to their perceived
difficulty, leading students to refrain from trying and testing them out. In
an environment where EFL reading is mainly perceived as a means to an end and
is framed as a decoding process rather than an interpretative one, the task of
developing metacognitive awareness in readers is immensely complicated.
Ammour’s findings capture some of the complexities associated with EFL reading
from a learner perspective; they also pose a challenge for education
practitioners encouraging them to rethink and develop methodologies for
teaching metacognitive reading strategies.

In Chapter 3, Fatima Zhora Chalal presents the results of her investigation
into vocabulary attrition among a group of multilingual adults with L4
English. Her experimental design is informed by studies undertaken by De Bot
and Martens (2015) which sought to test the so-called ‘savings paradigm’
(Nelson 1978). In order to test the existence and accessibility of lexical
knowledge twenty university students with a matching language profile (L1
Kabyle, L2 Arabic, L3 French, L4 English) were recruited and underwent the
same test procedure. The experiment made use of English word lists including
(i) high-frequency items which participants would have encountered during
their English studies at middle school and (ii) low-frequency words compiled
from a dictionary. The procedure involved relearning high-frequency words and
learning low-frequency words followed by a recall test administered an hour
and a half later. Chalal reports that the participants successfully recalled
74% of high-frequency vocabulary items with 100% accuracy eventually achieved
after a single trial. These figures are in stark contrast to the rate of the
acquisition attempts for the low-frequency words nearing as many as 6 and 7.
Chalal explains this effortless relearning of high-frequency items compared to
low-frequency items by crediting participants’ residual knowledge. These
findings are said to be of relevance to those responsible for providing
efficient solutions to maintain languages and to facilitate language
retention. In her closing remarks the author reflects on some of the
limitations of the study, such as short temporal proximity between learning
and testing. The need to broaden the scope of investigation into foreign
language attrition to include other aspects of language has also been
highlighted. 

Chapter 4 deals with the effects of the Metaphor Identification Procedure
(MIP) (Steen et al 2010) on a small group of university students. Sadia
Belkhir aims to test a hypothesis pertaining to the utility of MIP when it
comes to developing EFL learners’ ability to identify metaphors in written
discourse. A total of nine students with a varying degree of proficiency in
EFL and knowledge of metaphor as a stylistic tool took part in the experiment.
While all participants were required to identify metaphors in samples of
academic text, those with little or no knowledge of metaphor were subject to a
three-step experimental procedure compared to a single-step procedure for two
participants who had some prior knowledge of metaphor in the EFL context. The
first metaphor identification task was administered to all participants in
order to capture their present state of knowledge of the concept. The
principal difference between the two groups was that the former were asked to
familiarise themselves with the content of an article on MIP (step 2) and were
given a formal lesson on metaphor (step 3) in advance of undertaking the
second and third metaphor identification task. In addition a series of control
questions were posed to this group of participants querying their knowledge of
metaphors, their justification for their selection of metaphors in the
excerpts, their comprehension of the content of the article on the MIP and
their understanding of the formal lesson. The results revealed that the
subjects’ ability to identify metaphors had mostly increased once step 2 and
step 3 were implemented. A reversed trend was confirmed in the case of two
participants whose scores in step 3 were lower compared to scores achieved in
step 2. Also it is noteworthy that the highest score achieved across all the
experimental stages was relatively low (40.95%). The author stipulates around
the possible explanations; however, given the modest scale of this study, it
is apparent that a significant amount of research must be undertaken in order
to ascertain the benefits (if any) of deploying MIP as a pedagogical aid in an
EFL classroom. 

Chapter 5 contains a contribution by Georgios P. Georgiou aimed at uncovering
the perceptual patterns of Arabic adult speakers with regard to the vowels of
L2 Cypriot Greek. A brief literature review reveals gaps in knowledge of
speech perception of Greek as an L2, which the author attempts to address in
his investigation. The study employs a theoretical framework of the Perceptual
Assimilation Model (Best 1994) in order to predict the attunement of L2
Cypriot Greek learners. Having mapped out the differences between the Greek
vowel system and Egyptian Arabic, Georgiou details the experimental procedure.
Fifteen native speakers of Egyptian Arabic took part in a vowel assimilation
test and a vowel contrast discrimination test. A control group made up of
fifteen native speakers of Cypriot Greek took part in the discriminatory test
only. In the assimilation test L2 speakers were required to match aurally
presented Greek words featuring the target vowels with vowels in Egyptian
Arabic. The discrimination test implemented an AXB matching procedure
requiring the participants to judge aurally presented triads of Greek words
containing the target vowels. The results revealed that several Greek vowels
were assimilated into the Arabic phonological categories, with stress
considered here an important modifier of speech perception. The discriminatory
task revealed traces of phonological form transfer from L1 to L2.  Georgiou
interprets these results as symptomatic of an attempt by the learners to
assimilate the Greek vowels into the Arabic phonological system. What is more,
owing to phonemic differences between certain vowels in Arabic and Greek,
discrimination between and production of /i/- /e/ and /o/ - /u/ was shown to
pose a challenge to Arabic learners of Greek – results which the author claims
are consistent with other studies. Georgiou stipulates that this revealed
difficulty is likely to extend to learning other languages including
English--a claim which is yet to be verified. 

In Chapter 6 Amel Benaissa presents the results of an investigation into the
efficacy of digital flashcards and online Quizlets in a foreign language
classroom. Her research is limited to passive vocabulary (receptive
knowledge), control active vocabulary and free active vocabulary (productive
knowledge). Thirty participants recruited among the student population were
split evenly into a control and experimental group. Both groups were subjected
to the same pre-test procedure in which their vocabulary knowledge was tested.
Subsequently each group was tasked with learning fifteen new vocabulary items.
The control group availed of standard fill-in-the-blanks type of exercises and
multiple choice questions while the experimental group had access to the
online Quizlets programme. The post-test procedure for eliciting control
passive and active vocabulary gains matched the pre-test procedure.
Participants’ free active vocabulary was tested separately with the help of a
short composition task. The results revealed that the experimental group
significantly outperformed the control group when it comes to passive
vocabulary and active control vocabulary gains, indicating a positive effect
of online Quizlets. No significant difference was recorded between the two
groups’ performance in the free active vocabulary post-test. Benaissa
stipulates that the latter may be due to the fact that Quizlets, although
visually attractive and stimulating, fall short of encouraging students to
negotiate the meaning and use of words in a real-life context. Conclusions
drawn by the researcher are in keeping with developments in the field of
computer-assisted language learning (CALL). Benaissa’s findings offer foreign
language teachers and students a glimpse into the benefits of exploring online
tools such as Quizlet to support vocabulary acquisition.

Chapter 7 contains insights from an investigative study undertaken by Nora
Achili aimed at gauging a better understanding of Algerian EFL learners’
perceptions of success and failure. The author explores her participants’
intrinsic and extrinsic reasons which they attribute to their academic
performance with the help of a causal attribution questionnaire. Achili’s
study is underpinned by attribution theory (Weiner 1986). Sixty two master’s
degree students advanced in their EFL studies (C1) completed a twenty-eight
question long questionnaire targeting their perceptions of internal and
external causes associated with academic success and failure. Result analysis
revealed that the four highest rated causal attributions associated with
success were internal and included one’s interest, regular class attendance,
commitment, revision and preparation. The results were less clear-cut when it
came to students’ perceptions of causal attributions connected to academic
failure with both internal and external factors equally bearing on
participants’ perceptions. Controllability of causal attributions, that is
one’s abilities, task difficulty, effort and luck, were also probed, revealing
the former and the latter as the least controllable. Having framed motivation
as a dynamic and constructive process Achili concludes that attribution
training is needed in order to influence learners’ perceptions be they
uncontrollable and unstable internal or external reasons. Techniques and
teaching strategies aimed at motivating learners are put forward as a way of
intervening and influencing learners’ perceptions, particularly those likely
to impede their learning. 

In Chapter 8 Katia Berbar deals with the topic of anxiety as it is experienced
by foreign language learners. She builds on the existing body of extensive
research into the role of affective and emotional variables. In her study
Berbar employs a Likert questionnaire designed to measure the levels of
anxiety experienced by her participants at different stages of foreign
language learning, namely input, processing and output. A group of sixty five
first year university students were required to provide their responses to
eighteen questions pertaining to EFL learning. Result analysis revealed that
over 80% of respondents experienced anxiety at the input stage regardless of
whether information was presented aurally i.e. a listening task, orally i.e.
teacher instructions or in a written format. The source of self-reported
anxiety identified at the processing stage had largely to do with
participants’ concerns about time available to them to attend to new language
information. These concerns were further exacerbated by unfamiliar topics and
awareness of gaps in one’s lexical/grammatical knowledge. The output stage is
marked by an increase in physiological anxiety reaction with 73% of
respondents reporting a rapid heartbeat when asked to provide oral answers to
questions or deliver classroom presentations. Berbar asserts that the main
cause of anxiety, as reported by this group of participants, relates to the
comprehension of language input which negatively affected their EFL learning.
On foot of these findings Berbar encourages foreign language teachers to take
the necessary measures to mitigate the negative effects of anxiety on
students' learning. This is noting that the present study was not free from
limitations and acknowledging that further research into the impact of anxiety
on foreign language learners is required. 

In Chapter 9 Hanane Ait Hamouda maps out her investigation into students’
perceptions of the use of code switching in EFL classes. Compiled by Hamouda,
the  literature review reveals that code-switching has been at the heart of
many debates, revolving mainly around its perceived utility and effectiveness
as argued by some and strongly contested by others. This research is guided by
four hypotheses which predict EFL university students’ orientation towards the
use of code-switching in class and whether or not they consider it as an
obstacle in the cognitive process of English production. Data was gathered
from twenty seven second year MA students at Mouloud Mammeri University using
a questionnaire containing both closed and open-ended questions. The results
revealed that code-switching was widely present and practiced in EFL
classrooms by educators and students alike. The majority of respondents
(77.8%) reported that code-switching had no negative effects which they
thought would impede or compromise their learning. Similarly a large
proportion of the participants (66.7%) reported no negative effects of
code-switching on their language production both spoken and written. Hamouda
concludes that code-switching is perceived positively by the student sample.
She frames code-switching as performing a facilitatory role across all stages
of language production including conceptualisation, formulation, articulation
and self-regulation. In summary, Hamouda’s study joins other empirical studies
which advocate positive aspects of using code-switching in foreign language
classrooms. 

EVALUATION

The purpose of this volume as set out in the introductory Chapter 1 was to
look at the relationship between language and cognition from ‘a purely
educational perspective’ (p.2). The approach adopted in this volume is a basic
one; it is premised on testing, refining and modifying existing theories. 

This edited collection contributes fresh data to the body of research
pertaining to a range of phenomena at the intersection of cognition and
foreign language learning. Especially noteworthy is its inclusion of topics
such as metacognitive awareness, learners’ perceptions and attitudes which
increasingly have been gaining traction in cognitive and foreign language
learning research. 

All contributors to this volume adopt a cognitive stance which is in keeping
with the contemporary constructivist emphasis on active learners who seek,
form, and modify their knowledge, skills, strategies and beliefs. The content
included in the volume may appeal to undergraduate students and novice
researchers interested in this line of enquiry seeking to ‘dip their toe’
before wading into deeper water. 

Contrary to the editor’s claim, I would argue that this volume is of limited
interest to teaching professionals, teacher educators and applied linguists.
This is on the basis that the approach adopted by the contributors is not
applied in nature i.e. it clearly lacks a utilitarian edge. Furthermore, and
by the researchers’ own admission, many observations remain tentative and are
yet to be replicated in large-scale studies and in controlled settings.  While
the significance and relevance of each study is promptly explored, by and
large this group of authors is somewhat hesitant in putting forward
suggestions for practical classroom strategies or instructional applications.
Understandably, applying findings in practice should be suggested with
caution. Since contributions to this collection have been pitched by both PhD
researchers, teaching assistants and lecturers it may be that each author’s
length and variety of experience in the education sector was also a
contributing factor to the likelihood of them probing the question of the
applicability of theories and findings in practice. 

There are a number of limitations associated with the studies presented in
this edited volume. First, the book is limited to research in a single
educational context only, namely higher education. Second, all participants
except for those taking part in a study by Georgios P. Georgiou (Chapter 5),
were recruited from one student population at Mouloud Mammeri University in
Tizi-Ozou. Third, this volume is written from a local perspective concerning
EFL learners in the Algerian higher education system. Owing to these
contextual, population and geographical restrictions this book certainly
succeeds in making a contribution to local research in the field. What is
more, its inherent lack of diversity is further reinforced by the
contributors’ failure to make a linkage between their research findings and
how they could be extended to at least the broader regional context and
environments. 

Another point concerns the choice of methodology deployed in this volume.
Despite a promise of ‘innovative research’ (p.5) questionnaires stand out as
the ‘preferred’ data collection method favoured by five out of eight
contributors. It is difficult to disregard this pronounced preference for a
single method particularly when the rationale for this choice has not been
explained. Most of the contributing authors who deployed a questionnaire in
their research have come short of using the literature review for its intended
purpose, i.e. to identify an appropriate method of data collection. A greater
variety of data collection methods would have been expected from an edited
volume in order to showcase the plethora of strategies available to
researchers in the field of cognitive science and linguistics. 

Regretfully, in my view this work is invalidated by a number of issues
detrimental to publishing an edited volume. It falls short in terms of
analysis, synergy and continuity. In Chapter 1 the editor promises this volume
to be an ‘original investigation’ and yet readers, especially from
non-Algerian context, are provided with little value-added. On the whole,
contributors to this volume offer little by way of innovative research,
methodologies, analyses or ground-breaking findings. It is difficult to
conceive of this edited book as something more than a collection of loosely
put together articles given that neither the structure nor connecting links
between the foregoing chapters have been explicated. Although the introductory
Chapter 1 exemplifies some of the commonalities across the collection, the
book’s interconnectedness and coherence are in question. At minimum this
edited collection would have benefited from both a preface clearly outlining
the purpose, scope and limitations of the book as well as from an epilogue.
The absence of a closing chapter detailing to what degree the objectives of
this book have been achieved, considering the volume’s shortcomings and
addressing some potential criticism, gives an impression of it being an
incomplete work. 

REFERENCES

Best, C. 1994. The emergence of native-language phonological influences and
infants: A perceptual assimilation model. In J. Goodman & H. Nusbaumm (Eds.),
The development of speech perception: The transition from speech sounds to
spoken words (pp. 167- 24). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. 

De Bot, K. & Martens, V. 2015. Finding residual lexical knowledge: the
“Savings” approach to testing vocabulary. International Journal of
bilingualism, 8 (4), 373-382.

Mokhtari, K. & Reichard, C. 2002. Development of the
metacognitive-awareness-of-reading-strategies inventory (MARSI). Unpublished
manuscript. Oklahoma State University, Oklahoma. 

Nelson, T. 1978. Detecting small amounts of information in memory: Savings for
nonrecognised items. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and
Memory, 4, 453-468.

Steen, G. J., Dorst, A.G., Herrmann Berenike, J., Kaal, A.A., Krennmayr, T.
&Pasma, T. 2010. A method for linguistic metaphor identification: From MIP to
MIPVU. Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins. 

Weiner, B. 1986. An attributional theory of emotion and motivation. New York:
Springer-Verlag.


ABOUT THE REVIEWER

Marta Gasiorowska is a PhD candidate. Having completed an MA in Applied
Linguistics she is now investigating issues pertaining to foreign language
acquisition from a cognitive perspective. Her interests include second
language acquisition, second language teaching, innovative teaching
methodologies and usage-based linguistics.





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