31.2810, Review: Cognitive Science; Neurolinguistics; Translation: García (2019)

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LINGUIST List: Vol-31-2810. Wed Sep 16 2020. ISSN: 1069 - 4875.

Subject: 31.2810, Review: Cognitive Science; Neurolinguistics; Translation: García (2019)

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Date: Wed, 16 Sep 2020 11:09:19
From: Zeynep Başer [zynpbaser at gmail.com]
Subject: The Neurocognition of Translation and Interpreting

 
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Book announced at http://linguistlist.org/issues/30/30-2696.html

AUTHOR: Adolfo M.  García
TITLE: The Neurocognition of Translation and Interpreting
SERIES TITLE: Benjamins Translation Library 147
PUBLISHER: John Benjamins
YEAR: 2019

REVIEWER: Zeynep Başer, Kırıkkale University

SUMMARY

The book entitled ''The Neurocognition of Translation and Interpreting” was
written by Adolfo M. García, and published by John Benjamins Publishing
Company. The book starts with a brief introduction giving a general picture of
chapters and warnings to readers - especially those who are new to
neurocognitive translation and interpreting studies. 

As García indicated, the book has five major goals to achieve. To start with,
it aims to introduce neurocognitive research on interlingual reformulation
(IR), namely translation and interpreting in different modalities, describe
methods and techniques that have been used up to now, and provide a general
understanding of neuroscience and language and/or bilingualism. Furthermore,
the book aims to negotiate the relevant data obtained so far, and discuss the
current and future state of the field. 

Chapter 1,  Mind and brain in the study of translation and interpreting, 
interestingly and amusingly starts with an anecdote from Le Petit Prince by
Antoine de Saint-Exupéry, with its famous line (i.e. what is essential is
invisible to the eye) giving reference to the fact that mental operations
cannot be directly seen.  García starts with a history of cognitive studies in
the field of TIS (Translation and Interpreting Studies). Non-neural cognitive
approaches are listed as follows; rationalist, observational, introspective,
corpus-based, and quantitative. He mentions the historical background of
cognitive TIS, starting with Eugene Nida, who presented a rationalist model 
based on Chomsky's idea of generative-transformational grammar in the 1960s,
and another rationalist model by Roger Bell. It is followed by a discussion
about the models based on the observational approach, a special focus on
think-aloud protocols  (TAPs) introduced by the introspective approach, and
briefly corpus-based studies. Later, the author focuses on the quantitative
methods, namely psycholinguistic paradigms, keylogging experiments,
eye-tracking studies, and executive function assessments. 

In brief, García acknowledges and values the contributions of non-verbal
approaches to the growth of the field with a set of fundamental constructs,
yet he underlines the fact that incorporating brain-based approaches and
establishing collaborations across varied specialities will enable cognitive
TIS to examine questions which cannot be answered otherwise. 

In Chapter 2, The toolkit, García starts the chapter with an amusingly
striking illustration, as well; the example of MacGyver, the protagonist of an
American TV series. Reminding that MacGyver achieves lots of things using
nothing but merely a Swiss Army knife, he highlights the fact that
unfortunately, there is no such a magical tool to find answers to all the
questions worth addressing in the fields of science. First, García describes
the research designs (e.g. single-case, single-group, between-group, pre/post
designs), and experimental paradigms, which are categorised under two main
subheadings: verbal (e.g. word or sentence translation, single-language
reading tasks, equivalent recognition, bilingual-word association tasks,
lexical decision paradigms, semantic decision tasks, and dichotic listening
tests) and non-verbal (e.g. short term memory span tasks, working
memory-storage + processing tasks, free and cued recall, dual tasks,
mental-set shifting, inhibitory control tasks, and attentional paradigms).
Later, he highlights the importance of considering three types of variables:
conditional-related, stimulus-related, and subject-related variables, and
indicates that there are two major criteria in brain-based studies on
translation and interpreting, mainly accuracy and response time. Finally, the
question of what is actually going on in the brain leads to the discussion of
further investigations. García exemplifies the studies conducted with
brain-damaged patients and briefly describes how lesion models are
investigated. Following that, neuroimaging technologies and techniques are
presented under two categories: non-invasive (e.g. functional Magnetic
Resonance Imaging (fMRI), positron emission tomography (PET),
electroencephalogram (EEG), etc.) and invasive ( e.g. direct
electrostimulation and intracranial recordings).  However, as a final remark,
the author warns that it is important to be conscientious as there are several
confounding factors, such as variables, subjects, and limitations of each
research design and tool,  that may have a serious impact on the results. 

In Chapter 3, Prolegomena to the translating and interpreting brain, García
introduces basic concepts and constraints for neurocognitive investigation of
IR, and thereby intends to equip his readers, particularly those who are not
familiar with the fields of neuroscience or neurolinguistics,  with the
essential fundamental knowledge so as to ''understand, contextualize and
criticize'' the upcoming chapters. For this purpose, the chapter focuses on
three main issues consecutively; the general principles of neurology, the
organization of linguistic networks, and the specificities of the bilingual
brain.  García starts with a general description of the brain and basic
concepts such as neocortex (involving significant areas for language
processing), lobes,  gyri,  gray matter and white matter, and Broadmann areas.
He continues with other language related subcortical areas such as basal
ganglia, hippocampus, and cerebellum, and later describes two broad
cortio-subcortical networks (i.e. frontostriatal pathways and temporo-parietal
regions), and finally illustrates the structural components of a neuron and
synapses. However, he also highlights the fact that there is neither a single
neuron nor a region that can function sufficiently on its own for processing
higher-order functions, and thus points to the importance of acknowledging the
brain's connectivity. After presenting a general picture of the brain, García
focuses on the functional neuroanatomy of language, describes the classical
language areas including Broca's and Wernicke's area, and discusses the
linguistic functions (syntactic, semantic, and phonological operations) of
frontostriatal networks and temporo-parietal regions and their connections.
The neurological signatures of language processing are investigated under
three subheadings; ERP signatures (e.g. frequent-infrequent words,
lexico-semantic information, etc.), oscillatory signatures (e.g. word
recognition and retrieval), and functional connectivity signatures (e.g.
sentence processing). Lastly, the neurocognitive specificities of bilingualism
(both linguistic and executive mechanisms) are discussed. 

In Chapter 4, Building up from breakdown,  García presents ample evidence
regarding the functions and organization of distinct brain regions in language
processing, from brain-damaged patients under four categories divided by  the
particularities of the symptoms observed: compulsive translation, inability to
translate, paradoxical translation behaviour, and translation without
comprehension. Following that, the author discusses possible inferences
obtained through empirical studies about the neurocognitive organization of
translation and interpreting relative to single language processing. The
issues that he touches upon can be listed as follows: lateralization in
translation vs. single language processes, translation and interpreting
mechanisms vs. other linguistic mechanisms, the neural networks engaged by
different translation directions, conceptually-mediated and form-level routes,
and types of unit (e.g. word or sentence translation).  The general patterns
obtained through all these cases and evidences are eventually integrated into
neuroanatomical models. The first model described by García is his own model,
Neuroarchitectural Translation Model (García, 2012), which aims to provide a
general picture of the translating/interpreting brain across modalities
(visual and auditory), and the second model is Fabbro's (1999) neural model
distinctively focusing on simultaneous interpreting. 

With a final remark, García emphasizes that one should avoid the localization
of mechanisms in translation and interpreting as it would be oversimplifying
given that no single region is solely responsible for one specific function
under investigation and that higher-order functions rely on more complex
connections.

In Chapter 5, entitled The dynamics of directionality, García discusses the
directionality of translation, BT (Backward Translation; L2 to L1) and FT
(Forward Translation; L1 to L2). The chapter starts with an example of a
sightseeing trip across the state of Minnesota. It is a tour of Crystal and
Brooklyn, which allows two distinct roadmaps. 

For many years, the belief was that translation into one's own language was
the only way one can translate naturally. Thus, translation was basically
reduced to BT. This neglect of distinct sets of mechanisms required for BT and
FT was reflected in the previous models, based on the assumption that the
phases in these models would not differ between L1-L2 and L2-L1 tasks, such as
Nida's three-stage model, the ESIT's interpretive model, and Bell's
psycholinguistic model. 

The relevant data on the neurocognitive signatures of directionality come from
(i) functional neuroimaging evidence, (ii) electrophysiological studies, and
(iii) behavioral research. In this chapter, García further expands on each one
of these categories in order. 

 In Chapter 6, Process is as unit requires, García first presents an
illustration of how our gustatory system requires distinct processes for
distinct tastes before discussing the potential of distinct mechanisms for the
translation system. The chapter continues with an attempt at providing an
ultimate definition of what a translation unit is. Later, García presents
three main sources of evidence (namely functional neuroimaging,
electrophysiological , and psycholinguistic evidence) on neurocognitive
mechanisms which are engaged depending on the translation units, lexical or
sentential units. More precisely, the relevant studies investigating neural
underpinnings or neurocognitive and behavioral signatures of translation
mechanisms have shown that the linguistic properties of translation units
(e.g. word- or sentence- level processing) determine the activation of
specific neural regions, and that processing is influenced by both conceptual
(e.g. lexical-semantic features) and form-level (e.g. phonological and
orthographic patterns) factors. 

In Chapter 7, The interpreter's brain, the example of Walter White, the
protagonist in the popular TV series Breaking Bad, is given, and how our
brains change and adapt to different conditions as we continue to carry out
specific tasks or specialize in fields is explained.  The chapter describes
the foundations of simultaneous interpreting (SI) and discusses how practice
and experience in SI have a significant impact on the relevant neurological
systems. SI is defined as one of the most demanding tasks in bilingual
processing, and García gives place to major findings obtained in the studies
conducted with SIs. More precisely, the studies have demonstrated that
expertise in SI is associated with structural and functional changes in
regions of linguistic and executive control.  In brief, the chapter focuses on
the discussion of what is special about the brains of simultaneous
interpreters, and the effect of expertise in the field.

In Chapter 8, A story in the making, the author starts with the metaphor of
attic so as to indicate that neurocognitive aspects in Translation and
Interpreting Studies have long been neglected, and the ultimate goal of this
book is to provide a general picture of translation and interpreting in
relation to the human brain. Later, the questions previously identified at the
beginning of the book are now answered considering everything that has been
discussed in the chapters mentioned above. These questions and a very brief
summary of the answers to them are presented below. 

Question A is about the functional architecture of the translating and
interpreting mind. García summarizes the specific brain regions involved in
the process, factors shaping the complex internal configuration, and the
models demonstrating these regions and their functions. 

Question B  asks the role of these systems in different forms of translation
act. The author indicates different activation levels depending on the
conditions such as translation direction (Backward or Forward), type of unit
(word or sentence) and work type (action verbs or concrete nouns). 

Question C is about the inner temporal particularities. As previously
mentioned in Chapter 6, it is summarized how task- and unit- related variables
affect the processing in the brain. 

Question D asks types of interaction between cognitive systems during IR.
Based on the evidence presented in the book, and in response to this question,
it can be said that different cognitive systems are recruited during IR.
Furthermore, functional and structural connectivity changes are observed
depending on the direction of translation and interpreting as well as practice
and experience. 

Question E is related to the effects of sustained practice on fine-grained
cognitive domains. In brief, the results of the relevant studies demonstrate
that functional and structural adaptations are observed in the stages of
professional career stages. 

Question F is directed to discuss the contribution of natural sciences to
understanding cognitive TIS. As the author clearly highlights, a combination
of both neural and non-neural trends will enable translation and interpreting
scholars to reveal the mental underpinnings of the translating mind. 

Following the questions and answers, García points out the pros and cons of
investigating the neurocognitive basis of translation and interpreting. As he
noted, whilst brain-based research will provide a better understanding of the
inner workings of IR with the contributions and cooperation of different
disciplines, there are a number of issues whose improvement cannot be
neglected, such as terminological criteria, sample sizes, lack of
subject-related details, insufficiencies related to materials and tasks,
stimulus-related confounds, neglecting the investigation of more holistic
operations and merely focusing on atomistic tasks such as processing single
words or sentences, and lack of statistical criteria or consensual analysis.
Eventually, García proposes a list of possible topics for future studies on
neurocognition of translation and interpreting as well as educational and
institutional initiatives that need to be accomplished. 

EVALUATION

The study of neurocognitive aspects of translation and interpreting across
modalities (or interlingual reformulation, IR as García proposes) requires an
appealing interdisciplinary perspective. Over three decades, there has been a
special interest in the mental processes in the translator's / interpreter's
brain. This interest has been more prominent, especially in the past decade
with the acceptance of IR as a field of expertise and the accessibility of
tools and methods for measuring neurocognitive aspects of translation and
interpreting. However, there is still a long path for us to comprehend and
provide an accurate model of the brain translating and interpreting across
different modalities.  That's why, I believe that this book will be very
useful, particularly for those who are new to the fundamentals and methodology
of neuroscience and cognitive science, and intend to study the brain-based
aspects of the translation and interpreting process. Furthermore, for anyone
who would like to be informed or updated about the neurocognitive aspects of
IR, the book will be a comprehensive source. Besides, as García indicated, 
there are still a lot of things to be done for a better understanding of
mental processes in the translator's / interpreter's brain, and as he
discusses the latest findings, presents the current picture of the situation,
and asks several more questions, one can collect many research ideas for
revealing the underlying mechanisms.  

With the book entitled ''The Neurocognition of Translation and Interpreting'',
as García himself asserted at the very beginning of the book, the author has
five major goals: (i) introducing neurocognitive research on translation and
interpreting across modalities, (ii) describing the methodological toolkit
that has been used up to now, (iii) presenting the key notions of neurology,
the neural organization of the linguistic mechanism, and the bilingual brain,
(iv) presenting and interpreting the relevant evidence on the topics for
translation and interpreting studies, and (v) discussing the now and future
trends of the field. As mentioned in the Summary, the book consists of 8
chapters, proceeding with one specific goal at a time and building up until it
provides a clear understanding of the situation. All in all, the book
contrives to do what it aims for. It is a comprehensive source book for anyone
who would like to inform themselves about the basics of neurology in relevance
to functional and linguistic organization of the brain, the steps, pros and
cons of available research methods in the field with a comparison of the
contributions made by neural and non-neural studies, and finally a detailed
discussion of the findings obtained in the relevant literature. Thus, if one
plans to conduct studies on the neurocognitive aspects of translation and
interpreting across modalities, as either a novice or experienced researcher,
they can equip themselves with an understanding of the linguistic brain, an
appropriate research design and a tool required for their questions to be
answered,  thanks to this concise book. 
  
REFERENCES

García, Adolfo M. 2012. Traductología y neurocognición: Cómo se organiza el
sistema lingüístico del  traductor. Córdoba: Facultad de Lenguas de la UNC.

Fabbro, Franco. 1999. The Neurolinguistics of Bilingualism: An Introduction.
Hove: Psychology Press.


ABOUT THE REVIEWER

Zeynep Başer is an Assistant Professor at the Department of Western Languages
and Literature, Kırıkkale University, Turkey. She received her BA and MA in
English Language Teaching from Middle East Technical University. She holds a
Ph.D. in Cognitive Science (majors in Psychology & Linguistics). Zeynep does
research in Psycholinguistics, Experimental Linguistics, Cognitive Science,
and Foreign Language Education.





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