32.907, Review: General Linguistics: Yule (2020)

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Subject: 32.907, Review: General Linguistics: Yule (2020)

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Date: Fri, 12 Mar 2021 16:57:59
From: Claudia Sanchez [csanch4 at ilstu.edu]
Subject: The Study of Language

 
Discuss this message:
http://linguistlist.org/pubs/reviews/get-review.cfm?subid=36621777


Book announced at http://linguistlist.org/issues/31/31-1472.html

AUTHOR: George  Yule
TITLE: The Study of Language
PUBLISHER: Cambridge University Press
YEAR: 2020

REVIEWER: Claudia Sanchez, Illinois State University

SUMMARY

In the introduction we learn that this 7th edition has been updated with 40
new study questions, 20 new tasks and changes to the chapters on phonetics
(Chapter Three) and semantics (Chapter Nine). The online study guide has also
been updated including now more resources and tutorials.

Chapter One, “The Origins of Language” presents different theories regarding
how language originated. It includes the theory of a divine source, found in 
Herodotus’s report on pharaoh Psammetichus’s experiment with two newborn
babies and King James’s similar experiment; the natural sound source including
the ‘Bow-wow’ theory relying on onomatopoeia as origins of language, and the
‘Pooh-pooh’ theory proposing speech development from emotional circumstances.
Other possible sources include the musical source, (the belief that human
language origins may be due to the production of sounds before language); the
social interaction source, including the ‘yo-he-ho’ theory involving sounds
needed to coordinate physical activity among several people; the physical
adaptation source, showing how the human vocal tract and skeletal changes
favored human bodies to produce language; the tool-making source, observing
the belief that manual gestures may have been a precursor of language due to
the development of hands and the capacity of making tools; and lastly, the
genetic source, including the innate hypothesis.

Chapter Two, “Animals and Human Language” starts explaining how communicative
signals must be differentiated from informative signals. Yule also presents
the term ‘glossolalia’ as humans’ ability to produce sounds in a stream that
have no communicative purpose. The properties of human language are explored;
we are presented with reflexivity (our ability to use language to talk about
language itself), displacement (our ability to talk about things not present
in the immediate environment), arbitrariness (the fact that there is no
obvious or ‘natural’ connection between a linguistic form and its meaning),
cultural transmission, (the way in which humans acquire language from
interacting with others who share the same culture and language and not
through parental genes), productivity (humans’ ability to create new
expressions and manipulate linguistic resources) along with animals and their
fixed reference; lastly, duality (the ability of human language to be
organized at two levels simultaneously: letters and sounds that combined to
produce different meaning). The last section of this chapter is about language
and animals, discussing the cases of Washoe, Sarah and Lana, and Kanzi.

Chapter Three, “The Sounds of Language” emphasizes on the International
Phonetics Alphabet and what it is used for and includes a definition of
phonetics and the differences between articulatory, acoustic, and auditory
phonetics. Yule then turns the attention to the differences between voiced and
voiceless sounds along with places of articulation. He distinguishes between
familiar symbols such as bilabials, labiodentals, and alveolars first because
he proposes these can be easily recognizable from the graphs that they
represent. Unfamiliar symbols are considered dentals, interdentals, palatals,
velars or glottals, where the symbols are not so easily recognizable for those
less trained in the field. There is also an emphasis in understanding that in
phonetics, sounds are transcribed and not letters. The chapter continues with
manner of articulation, this being  one of the sections slightly expanded in
the present 7th edition. A consonant and vowel chart are also included.
Glottal stops and flaps are differentiated through examples as well.
Diphthongs are explored through a table that includes vowel movement from low
to high and front to back. There is emphasis in understanding how diphthongs
and their pronunciation differs between American and British English. The
chapter ends with a commentary on individual variation when pronouncing or
transcribing these vowel sounds.

Chapter Four, “The Sound Patterns of Language” is dedicated to phonology,
defined as the blueprint of each sound type that may vary in different
physical contexts. This is followed by a distinction between phonemes
(including natural classes), phones, and their allophones. The chapter also
includes a definition of complementary distribution and an explanation of how
allophones come to be in such a distribution. Yule continues with minimal
pairs and sets before getting into phonotactics. He also explains the elements
of a syllable (onset and rhyme) and specifies that the rhyme consists of a
nucleus and coda. Additionally, consonant clusters are analyzed. To finalize,
coarticulation effects are presented, from assimilation, nasalization, to
elision, Yule explains how these processes are part of everyone’s normal
speech and cannot be avoided.

Chapter Five, “Word Formation” includes an exploration of neologisms followed
by etymology and what it can help us understand about word origin and
trajectory. The rest of the chapter consists of a compilation of different
word processes; the first is borrowing (when any given language adopts a word
from another language). A specific type of borrowing is loan-translation or
calque, such as the French ‘gratte-ciel’ that translates to “scrape-sky”. The
next process is compounding (when two separate words are joined to form a new
one such as ‘textbook’). Blending (when only the beginning of one word joins
the end of the second) is defined as a specific case of compounding. After
that comes clipping (when a word of more than one syllable is reduced to a
shorter form); two clipping kinds are hypocorisms (when a word is reduced to a
single syllable and -y or -ie is added to the end), and backformation (when “a
word of one type (usually a noun) us reduced to form a word of another type
(usually a verb)). Conversion (when a noun is converted into a verb) is also
added to the list of word processes, and Yule notes that it can greatly affect
the meaning of certain words. Next comes Coinage (a new word is invented
sometimes sourced from names of commercial products); when based on someone’s
name, they are eponyms, and when a new word is formed from the initials of a
set of words they are acronyms. Lastly, we have Derivation (using affixes to
modify words and create terms with new meaning). Yule also differentiates
between prefixes, suffixes, and infixes and shows how exactly these follow
patterns in word formation. The chapter ends with a reflection on how these
terms normally arise across time and on how multiple instances of these can
affect the same word.

Chapter Six, “Morphology” states the function and definition of morphemes;
Yule classifies them into free and bound morphemes, lexical and functional
morphemes, derivational, and inflectional morphemes. The chapter continues
exploring morphological description exemplifying it through a sentence
analysis. Moreover, morphs, allomorphs, and special cases such as zero morph
are explained, followed with cases from other languages such as Kanuri, Ganda,
Ilocano, and Tagalog.

Chapter Seven, “Grammar” begins defining and describing traditional grammar.
Parts of speech (nouns, articles, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions,
pronouns, and conjunctions) are explored right after, all of them including
usage context and examples. Another important element included is agreement
and how it is partially based on number, person, tense, voice (active or
passive), and gender (natural). An important distinction is made between
natural gender (based on biological gender) and grammatical gender (based on
the type of noun). After that, the chapter focuses on differentiating between
a prescriptive and a descriptive approach to grammar; using Captain Kirk’s
infinitive (“to boldly go”) to exemplify the prescriptive approach, and
structural and constituent analysis for a descriptive approach, Subjects and
Objects are also studied and distinguished from one another with some
examples. Word order is discussed through language typology, and the chapter
concludes with a rationale about the importance of studying grammar.

Chapter Eight, “Syntax” focuses on the importance of syntactic rules and
generative grammar in composing well-formed structures. These structures allow
us to observe a deep and surface in sentence structure. Yule explains that
surface structure would be the syntactic forms, while the deep structure “is
an abstract level of structural organization in which all the elements
determining structural interpretation are represented” (p.114). Yule continues
by explaining that, while two sentences may have the same surface structure,
the differences can lay in the deep structure, where the interpretation is
different. This is explained as structural ambiguity. Another important
element included in the section is syntactic analysis. The last third of the
chapter encompasses phrase and structure rules, lexical rules, and tree
diagrams, through which the idea of how structures must follow a certain order
is settled. To finalize, the chapter recognizes that these rules and
structures are “just scratching the surface” (p.119) but that the materials
explored will help move into the study of Semantics.

Chapter Nine, “Semantics” starts with a distinction between referential
meaning, and associative or emotive meaning. The section notes that in the
study of referential meaning, sentences can be syntactically sound, but
semantically odd and this is because the components of the referential meaning
of words must correlate with the nouns and verbs used with it. This is
clarified in the next section where Yule explains that every word has semantic
features that qualify them to be used along with other nouns or verbs. These
features can be used through componential analysis to explain how words are
connected. However, Yule advises that this approach does not come without
problems; conceiving words as simple containers of meaning is restrictive and
not very practical. Consequently, semantic roles are explored right after, and
includes descriptions of agent, theme, instrument, experiencer, location,
source, and goal, along with examples. After that, the focus moves onto
lexical relations (synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, prototypes, homophones and
homonyms, polysemy, word play and metonymy). Lastly, the chapter focuses on
collocation and concordance, and how it relates to corpus linguistics.

Chapter Ten, “Pragmatics” begins by explaining that pragmatics consists of the
invisible meaning of what we say. For this topic, context becomes of great
importance, and so Yule presents a distinction of physical and linguistic
context that can affect the interpretation of a message. But the ambiguity of
language goes beyond context; deixis and deictic expressions are introduced
then, as words used to refer to people, places, and times. After that, Yule
explains that “words themselves don’t refer to anything” (p.153), we give
words their meaning through reference. Two kinds of references are presented:
inferences (making connections between what is being said and what is meant),
and anaphora/cataphora (referring to an antecedent or vice versa). Other
elements presented are presuppositions, pragmatic markers, and politeness;
within politeness, the concepts of positive and negative face are briefly
explained. Consequently, the next section includes speech acts
(direct/indirect) and what they mean for whoever is communicating through
them.

Chapter Eleven, “Discourse Analysis” begins defining discourse as “language
beyond sentence” (p.168) and elaborates on how interpreting discourse involves
some key elements. Starting with cohesion, Yule explains that this refers to
connections within texts. On the other hand, coherence 
(or the connection between parts of the discourse) is an element instantiated
by pronouns and conjunctions. A theory to analyze discourse is conversation
analysis and Yule explains that, in conversation, individuals take turns at
speaking, signaled by completion points. Turn-taking, pauses and filled
pauses, adjacency pairs, and insertion sequences are then expanded upon. Next,
the co-operative principle is defined, and items such as hedges, and
implicatures are included. Lastly, background knowledge when reaching
interpretations is noted, and the concepts of schemas and scripts are explored
in relation to such interpretations.

Chapter Twelve, “Language and the Brain” starts by introducing
neurolinguistics with the case of Phineas P. Gage and how he sparked the study
of language as related to the brain. The chapter continues exploring the brain
areas related to language: Broca’s area, Wernicke’s area, the motor cortex,
and arcuate fasciculus. Yule explains that while it is tempting to assume
certain parts of the brain oversee language, this localization view is a
simplified view. The following section explores tongue tips and slips (tip of
the tongue phenomenon, malapropisms, slips of the tongue and spoonerisms),
slips of the brain (perseveration, anticipation, and exchange) and slips of
the ear. Next there is a section on aphasias (Broca’s, Wernicke’s, and
conduction) with descriptions and speech examples. The chapter also explores
dichotic listening tests and expands on how left and right parts of the brain
are involved in this process. As an introduction to the next chapter, there is
one last paragraph about the critical period and the case of Genie.

Chapter Thirteen, “First Language Acquisition” begins defining acquisition and
the importance of input within it (caregiver speech). The chapter then moves
onto the acquisition schedule: cooing, babbling, the one-word stage, the
two-word stage, and telegraphic speech being the different stages elaborated
on, including age ranges and speech samples. Following, Yule makes a
distinction between schedule and process. Among the strategies explored are
learning through imitation and correction. Inevitably the next stages take us
to investigate the development of morphology (including overgeneralization)
and syntax (including the different stages in forming questions and
negatives). To finish, there Yule elaborates on the development of semantics,
and the concept of overextension and offers insight into later developments.

Chapter Fourteen, “Second Language Acquisition/Learning” begins by
differentiating between acquisition and learning and points out the
differences between English as a foreign language and English as a second
language. After that, acquisition barriers, the age factor, as well as
affective factors that can affect learning, are explained. The chapter then
divides in two sections: focus on teaching method and focus on the learner.
Regarding focus on teaching, the following methods are explored: grammar
translation, audiolingual, and communicative approaches. In regard to focus on
the learner, there is an analysis of the concepts of transfer (both positive
and negative), interlanguage (including fossilization), motivation
(instrumental and integrative), input and output and the importance of
simplified speech, and lastly, task-based learning. The chapter concludes that
achieving communicative competence will depend on grammatical,
sociolinguistic, and strategic mastery of the language.

Chapter Fifteen, “Gestures and Sign Languages” is dedicated to American sign
language. The chapter begins with a distinction between gestures and emblems.
Yule then elaborates on gestures and their characteristics (iconics, deictics,
and beats). Furthermore, the chapter differentiates between two general
categories: alternate sign languages (developed by speakers for limited
communication where language cannot be used) and primary sign language (the
first language of people who do not use spoken language). After that, there is
a brief historical review that includes information on the method ‘oralism’,
followed by Signed English, a system to facilitate interaction between the
deaf and hearing. Additionally, there is a brief introduction of the origins
of ASL followed by a description of how signs are structured (shape and
orientation, location, movement, primes, facial expressions and
finger-spelling). The chapter ends with a recognition of ASL as having all the
linguistic characteristics found in spoken language, and Yule explains that
children acquiring ASL as their first language go through similar
developmental stages as children learning spoken language.

Chapter Sixteen, “Written Language” consists of 3 main sections: phonographic,
syllabic, and alphabetic writing. The chapter begins with a historical
introduction to writing and the concept of pictograms as related to cave
drawings to record events. This is followed by a definition of ideograms, as
the developmental evolution from pictorial cave representations, and
logograms, with Sumerians and cuneiform writing as examples. Regarding
phonographic writing, Yule offers the rebus principle (when a symbol is used
to represent a sound of the spoken word). For syllabic writing, Japanese
writing is used as an example of symbols representing spoken syllables.
Lastly, for alphabetic writing we are introduced to the concept of an
alphabet, consonantal alphabets, and their role in history. The chapter
specifies the origins of the English alphabet and the variation between symbol
and sound. To finalize, English orthography is briefly explored, with a short
explanation of the relationships between Old English phonological changes that
resulted in changed spellings.

Chapter Seventeen, “Language History and Change” begins with the concept of a
Proto-Indo-European language; it is defined and exemplified through a figure
of the Indo-European family tree. The chapter continues explaining that
cognates are used to establish possible connections between languages but that
there are specific procedures to achieve this, such as comparative
reconstruction, the majority principle, and the most natural development
principle. Going into these principles, the processes of comparing cognates,
and sound and word reconstruction are also explored. Additionally, the chapter
includes a brief history of English, from Old English to Middle English. Yule
also includes a section on sound changes (metathesis, epenthesis, and
prothesis), syntactic changes (loss of infections), and semantic changes
(broadening and narrowing of meaning). The chapter ends with a small
reflection on diachronic and synchronic variation, stating that this chapter
takes a diachronic view of language, and introducing the following chapter as
a synchronic view.

Chapter Eighteen, “Regional Variation in Language” along with Chapters
Nineteen and Twenty, focuses more on the sociolinguistic aspects of language.
It begins with a reflection on standard language. Yule points at the
differences between accent and dialect as well to introduce dialectology;
within it, the study of regional dialects, NORMS (non-mobile, older, rural,
male speakers), isoglosses, dialect boundaries and the dialect continuum are
offered. Yule continues by exploring bilingualism, and the existent diglossia
in some communities. Consequently, this leads the topic onto matters such as
language planning strategies, with examples such as  the adoption of Swahili
as the national language of Tanzania. After that, the chapter focuses on
pidgins, and specifically English pidgins and their syntax. The chapter ends
with a brief commentary on creole languages, and the processes of creolization
and decreolization.

Chapter Nineteen, “Social Variation in Language” focuses on sociolects, and
the elements that can be categorized as social variables or linguistic
variables. The chapter continues by giving examples of studies where variables
such as education or occupation had an impact and explains the concept of
idiolect. In relation to this, Yule also dives into the concept of social
markers and their effect on how the speaker is perceived. The next section
discusses speech style and style-shifting and including terms such as prestige
(overt and covert), speech accommodation, convergence, and divergence. The
chapter then moves onto register, and it differentiates between jargon and
slang, as well as taboo terms. Lastly, the chapter briefly focuses on African
American English and its vernacular. It offers an overview of its phonological
features, and its grammar.

The final chapter “Language and Culture” begins with the concept of
categories, and it explains how certain linguistic items may be lexicalized in
some languages. In relation to culture, kinship terms and time concepts are
also explored through examples of Norwegian, Watam, and Hopi. In terms of
linguistic relativity, Yule offers the idea of linguistic determinism, and
arguments for and against the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. Additionally, the
example of snow terms in Inuktitut is used against the hypothesis. Yule
expands understanding of lexicalized items by explaining that English does not
lexicalize distinctions in ‘snow’ terms. The chapter also focuses on
classifiers, countable and non-count nouns to explain the existence of
cognitive categories. Lastly, to explore social categories, there is an
emphasis on address terms and gender. Within gender, Yule explores the
concepts of social gender, gendered words (including an approach to more
gender-neutral language), gendered structures and speech (including pitch and
tag questions), same-gender talk, and gendered interactions.

EVALUATION

The Study of Language covers language from its smallest units all the way to
the interactions and implications of language and culture, making it an
excellent and concise overview suitable for anyone wanting to understand the
basics of linguistics. Additionally, chapters have been organized in a way
that makes reading an intuitive and accessible experience. Overall, the book
is user friendly and non-threatening to those who are just getting started in
the discipline. Although the project in this book may seem ambitious, it is
intelligently approached; chapters have been carefully planned and they
progress smoothly. Moreover, the study questions and tasks at the end of each
chapter provide an engaging, interactive, and fun opportunity to revisit the
content in the chapters; the addition of more content in certain sections, and
the expanded study questions, not only invite students to challenge their
understanding of content but also promote further research though tasks that
allow students to take their learning even further. In sum, while the work
included in the book is quite large, Yule has done an excellent job polishing
content throughout its editions. 

This is unequivocally a best-selling, internationally acclaimed book that has
proven to be ideal for beginners when it comes to an introduction to
linguistics. Given the fact that this is the 7th edition of the book, it is
clear it has impressed many minds across the world and will continue to shed
light onto linguistics and inspiring more and more generations of students.

REFERENCES

Yule, G. (2020). The Study of Language (7th ed.). New York: Cambridge
University Press.


ABOUT THE REVIEWER

Claudia Sanchez is a PhD candidate specializing in Sociolinguistics and TESOL
at Illinois State University. She is also an Adjunct Professor of English at
Millikin University. Her research interests include perceptual dialectology,
language ideologies, attitudes toward language, and minority language
documentation and preservation.





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