35.1648, Review: The Cambridge Handbook of Third Language Acquisition: Cabrelli et al. (eds.) (2023)

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Subject: 35.1648, Review: The Cambridge Handbook of Third Language Acquisition: Cabrelli et al. (eds.) (2023)

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Date: 04-Jun-2024
From: Maria Laura Mecias [Mlaura.mecias at ufl.edu]
Subject: Applied Linguistics, Language Acquisition: Cabrelli et al. (eds.) (2023)


Book announced at https://linguistlist.org/issues/34.3604

EDITOR: Jennifer Cabrelli
EDITOR:  Adel Chaouch-Orozco
EDITOR: Jorge González Alonso
EDITOR:  Sergio Miguel Pereira Soares
EDITOR: Eloi  Puig-Mayenco
EDITOR: Jason Rothman
TITLE: The Cambridge Handbook of Third Language Acquisition
SERIES TITLE: Cambridge Handbooks in Language and Linguistics
PUBLISHER: Cambridge University Press
YEAR: 2023

REVIEWER: Maria Laura Mecias

SUMMARY

Part I: Theoretical Approaches to L3/Ln
Chapter1: Generative Approaches (González Alonso)
Generative perspectives on third or subsequent language acquisition
are relatively new within the broader fields of generative linguistics
and multilingualism studies. Despite their recent emergence, these
approaches have significantly influenced research in the past three
decades, fueling interest. This chapter overviews key concepts,
theories, and models that shape generative approaches to L3/Ln
acquisition, highlighting their distinctive features within the
generative framework.
González Alonso elucidates contemporary generative methodologies for
teaching L3/Ln, explaining why certain studies in this domain are
framed within a generative framework. He underscores fundamental
principles and inquiries derived from generative studies on L2
acquisition, advocating for exploring L3 acquisition to address
crucial issues. The chapter also outlines leading models in
morphosyntax, such as the Cumulative Input Threshold Hypothesis.
Finally, the author discusses the growing interest in L3 development
and outlines potential future directions, emphasizing the need for
longitudinal L3 research.

Chapter 2: Usage-Based Approaches (Morales-Front & Sanz)

Morales-Front and Sanz explore the application of usage-based methods
in studying L3 acquisition. They provide an overview of usage-based
frameworks, focusing on cognitive and social aspects such as
classifications, models, and adaptive systems. The chapter discusses
developmental stages, interlanguage, transfer, and other factors
within the context of L1 and L2 acquisition. Furthermore, it examines
significant findings in multilingualism and processing, supporting
ongoing debates with models like the Cumulative Enhancement Model. The
authors anticipate significant progress in usage-based methods,
offering valuable insights into L3-related phenomena.

Chapter 3: Dynamic Systems Theory Approaches (Jessner)

To create more appropriate frameworks for a multilingual norm,
scholars have begun recognizing that multilingualism is a social and
individual phenomenon. This chapter presents and updates recent
international research in the field of the dynamic model of
multilingualism (DMM), a systems theory applied to multilingual
development and use as a model, since 2002. The author takes us
through the basic ideas and historical evolution of complex dynamic
systems theory (CDST) focused on applied linguistics. Jessner presents
the multilingual speaker/hearer as a complex psycholinguistic system
comprising distinct linguistic subsystems that are interdependent
rather than autonomous. A concise but thorough review of motivation,
the qualitative shift between L2 and L3 development and the impact of
cross-linguistic interaction are presented. Based on a synopsis of
current global research, the author suggests a holistic approach for a
more accurate and comprehensive understanding of changes in
multilingual developmental quality.

Chapter 4: Sociolinguistic Approaches (Moyer)

The author introduces an ethnographic approach to language acquisition
studies, focusing on the acquisition context and its social
consequences. The chapter discusses the debate around English as a
leading third language, its various varieties, social, political, and
physical contexts, and its value as a commodity. Personal motivation
is also a critical factor in L3 instruction. The author emphasizes the
importance of considering societal ideologies, economic situations,
and material conditions in learning aspects. Understanding each
speaker's background can provide a more accurate perspective on
learning processes. The author suggests bridging the gap between
language acquisition and sociolinguistics by connecting language
variation usage data.

Part II: L3/Ln across Linguistic Domains

Chapter 5: Exploring the Acquisition of L3 Phonology: Challenges, New
Insights and Future Directions (Wrembel)


The chapter discusses the development of and research into L3
phonological acquisition, focusing on aspects like Voice Onset Time,
vowel quality, and foreign accentedness. It emphasizes the importance
of crosslinguistic influence and the shift towards examining the
developmental process. The methodology favors mixed and longitudinal
designs, with testing all three languages as a control measure. The
chapter presents various theoretical approaches to modeling L3
phonology, including extending L2 models, adapting L3 morphosyntactic
models, and proposing new models specifically for L3 learning. The
"Multi-Phon" project provides insights into crosslinguistic influence
in teenage multilingual phonological acquisition. Suggestions for
future research in the field are provided, aiming to expand our
understanding of phonological acquisition from a multilingual
perspective.
Chapter 6: Characteristics of the L3 Lexicon (Lindqvist & Falk)

This chapter offers an overview of research concerning L3 vocabulary
acquisition and its distinguishing features in comparison to L1 and L2
lexicons. It delves into various aspects of word knowledge, explores
internal factors impacting vocabulary acquisition in a third language,
and examines crosslinguistic influence (CLI). The authors explore
phenomena such as attempts at word construction, code-switching, the
influence of one's background language, and instances of semantic
transfer leading to negative outcomes. They also delve into the role
of language typology and the status of one's proficiency in L2 in CLI,
highlighting how proficiency in L3 can influence this dynamic.
Additionally, they explore positive transfer effects, demonstrating
how cognates and knowledge from both L1 and L2 can facilitate
learning. The chapter concludes by analyzing the structure of
multilingual lexicons and suggesting avenues for future research in
this field.

Chapter 7: Processing Words in a Multilingual Lexicon (Lemhöfer)

>From a predominantly experimental/psycholinguistic perspective, the
author summarizes current research and debates about the structure and
function of the tri- and multilingual lexicon. Because of the numerous
variables that vary from study to study, the author states that it is
challenging to systematically examine the behavior of this
heterogeneous population of trilingual speakers. An important portion
of the chapter is dedicated to revisiting the Bilingual Models; there
is an overview of research into word processing, the competitive
process, and co-activation, as well as an extensive review of the
models BIA and BIA+. The author discusses the inherent challenges that
this complexity brings about in the study of the lexicon in a
systematic way, looks into whether the bilingual results from several
of the experiments have been applied to trilinguals, and describes the
trilingual scenario to explain the asymmetries regarding
representation and processing. Lemhöfer observes that the three
languages of the speaker have the potential to interact during lexical
processing in any of the languages and invites further research
working on this interactivity.

Chapter 8: Full Transfer in L3/Ln Acquisition: evidence from two
clusters of studies (Puig-Mayenco)

Puig-Mayenco summarizes the arguments and empirical data supporting
the proposal for full transfer to occur in L3 acquisition, as proposed
for L2 acquisition. This article provides the reader with a concise
overview of the history of full transfer in L3/Ln. It addresses
several data sets and language combinations combined over time to
support the theory that full transfer from one of the previously
acquired grammars represents a credible explanation of the early
phases of L3 acquisition.

Chapter 9: Full Transfer potential in L3/Ln Acquisition:
Crosslinguistic influence as a property by property process (
Westergaard, Mitrofanova, Rodina, & Slabakova)

Continuing to analyze full transfer, the authors present a counter
argument by providing empirical evidence to support some of the most
popular arguments from the perspective of the LPM and the Scalpel
Model, in favor of property-by-property transfer in L3/Ln acquisition.
The chapter also includes a thorough methodology section in which
Westergaard, Mitrofanova, Rodina, & Slabakova formulate the reasoning
behind tests intended to look specifically for this kind of transfer,
such as the mirror-image groups, the subtractive language group, or
fully combined design as alternatives for multilingual studies.

Chapter 10: The acquisition and processing of pragmatics in
multilingual and third language learners (Antoniou & Michaelides)

The chapter begins with a helpful introduction that covers the terms
bilingualism and multilingualism from various angles, sometimes used
synonymously. The authors discuss pragmatic performance, speech acts,
and the capacity to communicate and interpret implied meanings, known
as implicature. These concepts are presented through research studies
and their implications for each topic. A noteworthy section follows,
dedicated to examining the bilingual advantage in L3 pragmatic
acquisition, drawing on recent studies investigating multilingual
populations. Subsequently, the chapter delves into further literature
exploring the complexities of speech acts, with particular emphasis on
target-language effects, crosslinguistic influence on speech
performance, and transfer effects on the L3. The authors address
future possible research methodology opportunities in those fields in
the conclusion section.

Part III: Becoming and staying multilingual at different ages

Chapter 11: 3L1 Acquisition during childhood (Kupisch)

Early exposure to three languages during childhood is increasingly
common in contemporary contexts. The author initiates the review by
examining the fundamental concepts of trilingualism as documented in
existing literature reviewing research cases. Subsequently, Kupish
evaluates the collective impact of several pioneering studies within
the field to proceed toward a more detailed analysis of specific
language domains. Factors influencing the sustenance and progression
of early trilingual language abilities are explored, encompassing both
supportive and challenging aspects. The review concludes by
highlighting significant prospects for future research in this area.

Chapter 12: Multilingualism and Education in Adulthood (Pérez Vidal &
Roquet)

This chapter contextualizes language learning research within
compulsory education while critically analyzing multilingual
educational policies in higher education. The authors begin by
delineating newly established multilingual policies and initiatives,
subsequently reinforcing these with case studies and contemporary
descriptive models in the European context. They then comprehensively
review the literature on language learning, identity formation, and
the enduring personal, professional, and individual development
fostered by multilingual education. In the concluding remarks, the
authors identify three main factors for further exploration and extend
them to emerging issues, conflicts, and prospective directions.

Chapter 13: Language attrition and L3/Ln (Cabrelli)

In this chapter, language attrition in the acquisition of a third
language (L3) is examined. Cabrelli begins the chapter by summarizing
important L2 attrition research and discussing its significance for L3
learning. She focuses on two main research questions about how
learning a third language affects previously known linguistic systems,
exploring the fundamental research that addresses these questions.
Most studies have focused on linguistic features in sequential
third-language learners in formal academic settings. She then
discusses ongoing issues arising from these studies and investigates
possible approaches for representing attrition in multilingual
settings. Cabrelli supports incorporating experimental techniques from
L1 attrition studies into creating a methodological framework for
L3-specific research.

Chapter 14: Heritage speakers as L3 acquirers (Lloyd-Smith & Kupisch)

The introduction to this chapter aids in differentiating between
heritage speakers (simultaneous bilinguals) acquiring an L3 and
successive bilinguals learning an L3. An in-depth analysis of studies
on multilingual individuals acquiring a third language in morphosyntax
and phonetics-phonology is presented. A definition of heritage
speakers as third language (L3) learners is provided, along with
information on empirical studies in these linguistic domains. The
chapter discusses distinguishing speakers, comparing research findings
in morphosyntax and phonology, and addressing methodological
challenges while suggesting areas for future research.

Chapter 15: The effects of environment change on third languages. The
case of returnees. (Flores & Kubota)

The chapter discusses three scenarios in which an environmental shift
may affect the status of an L3, raising theoretical questions. The
research discussion moves around the following situations: First,
returning to an L3 environment (in childhood) may change the paths and
effects of L3 attrition. Second, relearning a lost language may
consist of reactivation or L3 acquisition. Lastly, the authors
contribute to the theoretical discussion of L3 acquisition models by
examining L3 development post-return and the influence of the dominant
language environment. Flores and Kubota suggest that returnees, a
group that needs to be thoroughly researched, have the potential to
shed light on significant aspects of multilingualism. Future research
guidance is provided for longitudinal studies and returnees’ language
interactions.

Part IV
L3/Ln in action

Chapter 16: Theoretical linguistic approaches to multilingual
code-switching. (Parafita Couto, Bellamy, and Ameka)

The authors suggest that code-switching allows for the exploration of
formal properties that may not be apparent when studying a single
language, offering valuable data for potential inclusion in theories
of mental grammars. An overview of various theoretical explanations
for bilingual code-switching is provided, followed by data from
multiple research studies to determine if these models apply to
multilingual code-switched speech. The complex nature of
code-switching demonstrates that linguistic and non-linguistic factors
may influence production, judgments, and processing. The authors
examine different instances and determine that current theoretical
frameworks do not necessitate additional methodology to address
multilingual code-switching. However, they state that  the limitations
of those frameworks also pertain to multilingual contexts, as the
field still seeks the most efficient method to elucidate the
phenomenon.

Chapter 17: Psycholinguistics of Multilingual Code-Switching. (Valdés
Kroff, Kheder, Tomic, and Kaan)

The chapter starts by providing an overview of the psycholinguistics
of code-switching, placing it in the context of research on various
switching phenomena, such as single-word cued language switching. The
authors then analyze linguistic and extra-linguistic factors that
impact the production and processing of intrasentential
code-switching. An examination of recent studies among multilingual
speakers in Algeria is conducted, as they frequently switch between
French, Standard Arabic, and Algerian Arabic. The authors look at
sociolinguistic and psycholinguistic research on code-switching in a
multilingual community like Algiers. They focus on lexical activation
and selection, cross-language interaction and switch costs, and how
language processing and cognitive control are connected. They
highlight the importance of the social environment in multilingual
communities as a fundamental basis for conducting experimental
research on multilingual code-switching.

Chapter 18: Third language acquisition in the classroom (Angelovska
and Hahn)

The chapter commences with an introductory exploration of the impact
of bilingual upbringing on L3 acquisition, followed by a comprehensive
review of research findings comparing various types of bilingual
individuals in multilingual classrooms. Subsequently, the authors
examine how the grammatical structures of previously acquired
languages influence the development of L3 morphosyntactic
interlanguage, focusing on studies investigating transfer in L3
acquisition. They further analyze the complex factors involved in L3
interlanguage development. Concluding the discussion, they offer
insights into pedagogical implications for the complexity of L3
instruction in diverse classroom settings, focusing on teacher-related
factors.

Chapter 19: Diversity in multilingual learners. How variation in
learners and contexts for learning shape the acquisition and
processing of an L3/Ln (Kroll and Degani)

The chapter begins with a fresh research summary of three observations
on bilingualism that can help tackle various aspects of
multilingualism from diverse viewpoints. Bilingual and multilingual
speakers may be advantaged in some aspects of new learning
opportunities. They explore recent studies on behavioral and brain
markers of new learning, moving beyond comparisons between monolingual
and bilingual individuals to examine how differences appear among
learners, how their learning backgrounds vary, and how learning
processes and results are affected by particular environments. The
authors discuss recent neuroscience studies that provide insights into
language acquisition, even before the point where these processes can
be detected through behavior. They conclude by presenting new evidence
indicating that the social environments in which language learning
occurs influence the learning process. Research will yield the desired
information once more accurate and effective methods are developed to
capture the variability and dynamic changes in language learning.

Part V L3/Ln and Cognition
Chapter 20: Multilingualism and cognitive control in the brain
(Chung-Fat-Yim, Hayakawa, and Marian)

This chapter delves into how multilingual language exposure impacts
cognitive control. Research indicates that bilingual individuals
constantly activate their languages, posing challenges to their
cognitive systems. The authors initially provide an overview of
existing literature on bilingualism and cognitive control.
Subsequently, attention is given to three distinct groups:
third-language learners, multilingual young adults, and simultaneous
interpreters, each of which face different levels of language control
challenges. Studies on third-language learners reveal neural changes
associated with cognitive control during early language acquisition.
Conversely, research on multilingual young adults suggests qualitative
processing differences compared to monolinguals. Finally, simultaneous
interpreters exhibit alterations in brain matter volume.

Chapter 21: Multilingualism and Cognitive Reserve (Calvo & Bialystok)

Calvo and Bialystok aim to analyze literature on bilingualism and
cognitive reserve, examining measurement and definition of cognitive
reserve, and assessing the impact of bilingualism on cognitive
reserve. In recent years, theories of reserve have emerged to explain
the brain's ability to withstand neurodegeneration. Cognitive reserve,
acquired behavioral manifestations of neuroplasticity, and brain
reserve, a biological characteristic, play key roles. Bilingualism has
been linked to improved cognitive reserve in older individuals,
potentially delaying dementia onset, but evidence remains
inconclusive. The chapter covers findings on delayed dementia onset,
variations in brain pathology, and disease advancement in multilingual
individuals. This analysis may offer insights into the relationship
between bilingualism and cognitive reserve, prompting further
exploration in clinical research.

Chapter 22: The effects of multilingualism on brain structure,
language control, and language processing: insights from MRI (Yee,
DeLuca, and Pilatsikas)

In this chapter, Yee, DeLuca, and Pilatsikas investigate whether
ongoing brain adaptations occur in multilingual individuals, focusing
on changes in structural architecture, functional connectivity, and
neural network processing. They start with an introduction to the
influence of bilingualism on brain structure and function, then
explore how these effects may extend to multilingualism. Reviewed
studies reveal initial impacts of multilingualism on subcortical gray
matter volume and white matter tract integrity. The authors also
discuss language processing and control processes, highlighting
variability in resting-state functional connectivity. They examine
modulating factors affecting neuroplasticity, including age of skill
acquisition, proficiency level, and expertise. Through evidence and
theoretical insights, they suggest future research directions in the
field.

Chapter 23: Mechanisms of cognitive aging in multilingualism
(Antolovic, Higby, and Obler)

The authors begin by exploring the impact of aging and multilingualism
on cognitive and executive functions. They then outline three
mechanisms—compensation, maintenance, and reserve—to illustrate how
multilingualism can influence and regulate a healthy aging process.
These mechanisms provide insight into the cognitive changes observed
at the intersection of aging and multilingualism, offering preliminary
frameworks for predicting the specific effects of multilingual aging
on cognitive abilities.

Chapter 24: Multilingualism and Language Impairment (Goral and
Fortunato-Tavares)

This chapter investigates language impairments in multilingual
individuals, including autism, dyslexia, developmental language
disorder in children, and aphasia and traumatic brain injury in
adults. The authors address three major topics: the benefits and
drawbacks of multilingualism, how impairments manifest across
languages, and the outcomes of interventions in multilingual settings.
Despite the scarcity of research in this field, the authors identify
common themes and suggest potential areas for future research. They
argue that learning L3/Ln can help us understand the fundamentals of
representing and processing language impairments.

Part VI Research Methods in L3/Ln
Chapter 25: Innovations and challenges in acquisition and processing
methodologies for L3/Ln (Pereira Soares, Chaouch-Orozco, and González
Alonso)

The authors conduct an extensive examination of research on language
processing in a third or subsequent language, expanding beyond the
traditionally studied domain of bilingual language processing. These
investigations typically arise from psycholinguistics,
neurolinguistics, and computational linguistics. Multilingualism
research extends beyond inquiries specific to second-language
acquisition, prompting the need for methodological advancements in
third-language studies. Innovations in research could continue to
bring progress to the field such as mirror-image group design and
EEG/ERP in L3 transfer.

Chapter 26: Corpus Research (Wulff)

Despite the scarcity of resources, Wulff offers a valuable resource
for conducting corpus research. The author explores L3/Ln studies
using publicly accessible corpora from multilinguals, directing
readers to these sources and highlighting the need for ongoing
research in this area in light of a survey of L3/Ln researchers.
Researchers interested in accessing a corpus emphasized the
significance of standardizing file formats. This corpus should
comprise unannotated data, predominantly featuring combinations of
primary (L1) and secondary-third (L2-L3); the L1 most required
languages were English and Spanish. An ideal corpus should include
metadata providing details such as the age of language acquisition
onset, the sequence of language acquisition, the extent of language
usage across all languages, the contexts in which languages are
spoken, and biographical information. The chapter concludes by
exploring the potential of corpus research in L3/Ln to complement
experimental studies.

Chapter 27: Case Study Research in Multilingual Contexts (Hammarberg)

Hammarberg provides an overview of case studies that distinguish
between multilingual and bilingual studies. The chapter delineates the
methodology and the extensive linguistic reach of this particular type
of research. It subsequently examines case studies investigating
language acquisition and production, intercomprehension processes,
polyglots, linguistic biographies, self-reports, and the personal
encounters of multilingual individuals.

Chapter 28: Using artificial languages to study third language
learning and processing (Grey)

Grey investigates the benefits and potentials of utilizing artificial
linguistic systems to research the acquisition and processing of
multiple languages. Furthermore, the discussion encompasses reviewing
previous research in this area and delving into key topics where these
methods have significantly contributed to study third language
learning.

Chapter 29: Statistical modeling in L3/Ln acquisition (Duarte García)

Duarte García assesses the use and appropriateness of Bayesian
statistical methods for analyzing L3/Ln data. The author advocates for
the adoption of Bayesian analysis and demonstrates its advantages
through a re-evaluation of the Rothman (2010) dataset, showcasing its
utility in rigorous research practices.

EVALUATION

This handbook is designed to appeal to practitioners as well as
applied and theoretically oriented researchers. It provides an
expansive exploration of the current landscape of the field,
incorporating historical contexts and the evolution of various
subtopics within L3/Ln acquisition. Each chapter presents a fresh
perspective, furnishing a robust framework and comprehensive review of
the research within its specific domain. Moreover, the text adeptly
identifies gaps in the existing literature and research, presenting
them as opportunities for further investigation and scholarly
contributions. As a result, the volume stands as a cutting-edge
synthesis of L3/Ln language acquisition, offering invaluable insights
particularly for new researchers looking for innovative topics in the
field.

ABOUT THE REVIEWER

Maria Laura Mecias is a Ph.D. student in Hispanic Linguistics at the
University of Florida, where she also teaches Spanish for Healthcare
Professionals. María Laura is particularly interested in second
language acquisition with a focus on vocabulary development for
multilingual speakers.



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