35.2475, Review: Culturally Responsive Schooling for Indigenous Mexican Students: Perez and Vásquez (2024)

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LINGUIST List: Vol-35-2475. Wed Sep 11 2024. ISSN: 1069 - 4875.

Subject: 35.2475, Review: Culturally Responsive Schooling for Indigenous Mexican Students: Perez and Vásquez (2024)

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Date: 11-Sep-2024
From: Laura Dubcovsky [lauradubcovsky at gmail.com]
Subject: Applied Linguistics: Perez and Vásquez (2024)


Book announced at https://linguistlist.org/issues/35.964

AUTHOR: William Perez
AUTHOR: Rafael Vásquez
TITLE: Culturally Responsive Schooling for Indigenous Mexican Students
SERIES TITLE: Bilingual Education & Bilingualism
PUBLISHER: Multilingual Matters
YEAR: 2024

REVIEWER: Laura Dubcovsky

SUMMARY

Culturally Responsive Schooling for Indigenous Mexican Students
addresses three indigenous Mexican communities -Mixtec, Zapotec, and
P’urhépecha-, with a long relationship with United States, as many
young students moved to the United States and attend American high
schools.  Perez and Vásquez offer an overview of these peoples,
delineate prevailing trends in identity development theories, describe
the national settings and transnational borders crossed by these
populations, and construct solid criteria of analysis based on
transculturation and translanguaging theories. Chapter 1 introduces
the topic, presents the overall organization of the book, and
justifies the rationale for exploring the three indigenous
communities, underlying the historical and on-going impact in current
classrooms. The authors characterize the indigenous immigration as a
dynamic flow that encompasses global migrant waves as well as the
changing economic, social, and cultural conditions that are affecting
the entire world. Purposefully, the chapter is titled “Indigenous
Mexican students in US Schools invisible no more,” pointing out social
shifts and developmental adaptations to new realities (Castles &
Miller, 2004).

In Chapter 2 Perez and Vásquez provide an “ethnic description” of the
Mixtec, Zapotec and P’urhépecha populations. Not only do they give an
accurate representation of each group, but they make clear
distinctions between indigenous and non-indigenous people living in
the United States. The authors claim that these differing communities
are frequently perceived as one homogeneous and compact group, while
they have in fact different backgrounds, languages, and educational
experiences, adding to a range of differing factors, such as
geographical settings (rural, suburban, and urban area), language
proficiency levels (one or more indigenous languages, Spanish, and
English), and (high/low) sense of indigenous identity. The thorough
explanation uncovers a double layer of discrimination: in the USA
indigenous communities are   usually marginalized by non-Hispanics for
being Mexican immigrants, while on Mexican soil they feel ostracized
by non-indigenous communities for speaking languages other than
Spanish (Stephen, 2007).  The pervasive racism leads not only to
institutional decisions, from devaluation to prohibition of indigenous
languages and cultural practices, but also to individual and communal
determination to hide the language of origin, decrease the number of
speakers, and adopt attitudes of apparent indifference and “passing”
to avoid stigma and isolation.  Moreover, the chapter refers to the
transnational sociocultural phenomenon by which students intend to
recreate original elements of their hometowns, while adopting American
customs and values.  This “sense of ethnic distinctiveness”
strengthens their roots and identities (Kearney, 2000), while it
prepares them for the new hybrid way of being (Cornell & Hartman,
2007).

Chapter 3 elaborates on the multilayered intersection of “cultures,
multilingualism and transcultural identities. Perez and Vásquez expose
“A theoretical framework for understanding indigenous Mexican
adolescents in US schools,” describing the four main categories that
will guide their analysis. “Transnational identity” is a descriptor
that examines how indigenous adolescents can navigate across borders
and establish a transnational network, where families, schools, and
communities may promote their academic access, personal self-esteem,
and overall well-being (Umaña-Taylor et al., 2014).   “Dynamic
multilingualism” is a linguistic criterion that enables evaluation not
only of the presence of two or more languages, but also of the
interaction in different linguistic landscapes (Hornberger & Link,
2012), weighing practices of translanguaging and negotiation of
meanings, according to different purposes, interlocutors, and
situations (García 2009).  Students’ “sense of resilience and agency”
is a defining category that analyzes the presence/absence,
growth/decrease, and changes/stability of these behaviors, always
subject to individual, social, and cultural circumstances.  The covert
and open discrimination gives rise not only to varying individualized
reactions, from defiance to depression, and from invisibility to
awareness, but also to more purposeful and explicit teaching of
survival strategies, known as the “pedagogy of the chameleon,” which
aims to help children, parents, and communities to cope and adapt to
different situations (Machado-Casas, 2012).  Finally, “educational
promises and challenges to academic access” is an indicator of the
frequent and systematic exclusion from higher levels of education
suffered by members of the indigenous communities. Rather than direct
prohibitions, most educational institutions offer fewer resources,
place these students with ill-prepared teachers, and include them in
impoverished programs with insubstantial curriculum. Although dual
immersion programs have proven to be very effective, it is extremely
infrequent to find bilingual programs that offer some indigenous
languages, offer differentiated instruction that meets students’
needs, or incorporate indigenous parents in the school life,
facilitating the overall educational pathway.

The following chapters examine the three indigenous communities
separately, maintaining the same organizational structure, describing
the socio-cultural context, following the categories of analysis, and
concluding with noticeable remarks. In Chapter 4 Perez and Vásquez
focus on the Mixtec people, underlining how their elevated language
proficiency in two or three languages, added to high levels of
participation in cultural and religious activities, contributes to
students’ overall ethnic affinity, ethnic uplift, and elevated
self-esteem.  The authors find that Mixtec youth tend to join peers
from the same towns of origin, while avoiding contact with other
minority groups. Although many feel proud of being “Mixtecos” and of
becoming language brokers in the family, prepared to translate medical
prescriptions and governmental forms for their parents, others prefer
to adopt a shy and “blurry” position, burying their identity under a
more universal label of “Mexicanos” or “Mestizos,” to escape any form
of stigmatization.  Moreover, students confess their feelings  are
ambivalent between fulfilling family’s high expectations of
educational success, and overcoming the daily burden of financial
struggle and social misplacement.

Similarly, Chapter 5 focuses on the Zapotec people and compares major
traits between the two groups. Perez and Vásquez find that Zapotec
parents are overall more educated than the Mixtec group, and
consequently their children attain higher levels of education.  As a
matter of fact, most of them speak Spanish, English, and Zapotec and
show ease maintaining trilingual practices. Similar to the previous
community, while most Zapotec feel very proud of their identity, some
are inclined to consider themselves “Mexicano,” “Hispanic,” or
“Latino.”  Zapotec elementary and high school students participate
actively in festivals, dances, music, and religious activities. As
part of their cultural socialization, Zapotecs take periodic trips to
their towns of origin, while many family members participate, at
different degrees of involvement and financial support, in the
municipal governance in local towns and US-based associations. Like
the Mixtec community, young students affirm their identity by using
the Zapotec language and interacting with peers from the same town of
origin. They also opt for remaining silent and do not speak their
language in public spaces, pretending to fade or be something else.
However, and different from the Mixtec group, at least a small number
of Zapotec students may take honor/ advanced placement (AP) classes
and participate in enrichment programs, which provide them with more
opportunities for college preparation.

Finally, Chapter 6 addresses the P’urhépecha people, who are mainly
from the state of Michoacan, contrasting with the former two groups
who mostly come from Oaxaca.  Perez and Vásquez point out that
although they represent the highest ratio of all indigenous speakers
in the state, they do not show the language diversity of the former.
They also differ in the lack of a governance system based on usos y
costumbres and, above all, they show higher levels of poverty. These
conditions transfer to polluted neighborhoods, crowded housing
conditions, unreliable running water, and lack of places to buy
healthy food, among others. The authors emphasize the ancestral
practices in music, gastronomy, and legends maintained by the
P’urhépecha, which help strengthen their ethnic enclaves and
identities. Although most students do not speak their language of
origin very well, do not have many opportunities to practice Spanish,
and attain just basic communicative English, they attain the highest
level of perceived trilingual proficiency among the three indigenous
groups (O’Donnell, 2010). However, they have the lowest level of
academic performance and the least participation in honor and
enriching programs, as well as extracurricular activities.  Socially,
they share the same strategies of saying little, not disclosing where
they are from, and remaining invisible in their classrooms. However,
out of the classroom they establish animated conversations with their
P’urhépecha friends, have fun, and are open in talking about their
problems.  The same contrast is shown between students’ self-report
about their parents and older siblings’ encouragement and support to
pursue educational goals, and school members’ beliefs, as teachers,
staff and administrators perceive an overall disinterest and lack of
parental involvement in educational affairs.

Chapter 7 closes the book by summing up major findings and underlining
linguistic and cultural discontinuities, such as the mentioned
marginalization and racial discrimination. The “Conclusion” overarches
previous micro, meso, and macro analyses, focuses on transnational
experiences, and proposes a new conceptualization of the young
indigenous immigrants, based on a more complex and dynamic net of
interactions (Kovats, 2010).  Departing from a traditional construct
of “Mexican immigrants” as a monolithic and homogeneous group, Perez
and Vásquez advocate for a more accurate representation, where
financial aspects, immutable geographies, and cultural traditions are
no longer sufficient to explain the multidimensional nature of current
global and fluid identities of indigenous immigrant youths. As has
been repeatedly shown along the chapters, students learn to navigate
across borders and reconcile local, national and transnational values
and gain positive feelings of their “self” and assertive identity,
thanks to strong social and family ties. Ultimately, they will
survive, resist, and succeed in the host environment, contingent on
changing circumstances (Barillas-Chón, 2010).  Finally, the authors
recommend educators and policymakers adopt more comprehensive
perspectives, considering the flexibility of boundaries and the
multiple linguistic practices (Adams et al., 2006).  The chapter also
enumerates some possibilities to further educational research, such as
the research on specific intragroup discrimination and bullying, the
creation of well-founded resources for practitioners, and multilingual
tools so counselors may guide indigenous students and parents along
the school pathway, especially toward the neglected transition to
higher education (Roer-Strier, 2000).

EVALUATION

Culturally Responsive Schooling for Indigenous Mexican Students
uncovers the social and educational experiences of less explored
populations of young immigrants, as it focuses on three distinctive
groups with strong presence in American schools.  The book closely
examines  the ethnoracial identities, language uses and transnational
practices of Mixtec, Zapotec and P’urhépecha students. Therefore, it
will be especially useful to teachers, board members, and researchers
aware of the increasing number of indigenous students who remain
understudied.  Perez and Vásquez offer a detailed two-year study that
combines quantitative and qualitative data, which will enable readers
to gain insights into how these youths cope with the big challenges of
immigration, anti-indigeneity and linguicism.  Written in a friendly
style, the book includes illustrative maps, examples, and a final
glossary that complements and enriches the exposition. The final
Appendix comprises numerous tables that condense meticulous
information, including demographics, characteristics of the towns of
origin, students’ ethnic and cultural identity, language use, and
academic profiles, among other topics (Tables A.1-17, pp.125-144).
Moreover, they examine in-depth cases that feature students’ voices
through compelling narratives of need and struggle, and enumerate some
positive experiences from previous studies, which will inspire
practitioners and administrators.

REFERENCES

Adams, G., Fryberg, S., Garcia, D., & Delgado-Torres, U. (2006). The
psychology of engagement with indigenous identities:  A cultural
perspective. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 12(3),
493-508.
Barillas-Chón, D. (2010). Oaxaqueño/a students' (un) welcoming high
school experiences. Journal of Latinos & Education, 9(4), 303-320.
Castles, S., & Miller, M. (2004). La era de la migración: Movimientos
internacionales de población en el mundo moderno: Universidad Autónoma
de Zacatecas.
Cornell, S., & Hartman, D. (2007). Ethnicity and Race: Making
identities in a changing world: Pine Forge Press.
García, O. (2009). Bilingual education in the 21st Century. A global
perspective. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell
Kearney, M. (2000). Transnational Oaxacan indigenous identity: The
case of Mixtec and Zapotec. Identities, 7(2), 173-195.
Hornberger, N., & Link, H. (2012). Translanguaging and transnational
literacies in multilingual classrooms: A biliteracy lens.
International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 15(3),
261-278.
Kovats, A. (2010). Invisible students and marginalized identities: The
articulation of identity among Mixteco youth in San Diego, California.
(Master’s Thesis). San Diego State University, San Diego, CA.
Machado-Casas, M. (2012). Pedagogies of the chameleon: Identity and
strategies of survival for transnational indigenous Latino immigrants
in the US South. The Urban Review, 44(5), 534-550.
O’Donnell, J. (2010). The indigenous, national, and international
language in higher education: Students' academic trajectories in
Oaxaca, Mexico. International Journal of Applied linguistics, 20(3),
386-416.
Roer-Strier, D. (2000). Socializing immigrant children. In E. Olshtain
& G. Horenczyk (Eds.), Language, identity, and immigration (pp.
65-80). Hebrew University Magnes Press.
Stephen, L. (2007). Transborder lives: indigenous Oaxacans in Mexico,
California, and Oregon: Duke University Press.
Umaña-Taylor, A., Lee, R., Rivas-Drake, D., et al.  (2014). Ethnic and
racial identity during adolescence and into young adulthood: An
integrated conceptualization. Child Development (85), 21-39.

ABOUT THE REVIEWER

Laura Dubcovsky is a retired instructor and supervisor from the
Teacher Education Program in the School of Education at the University
of California, Davis. With a Master’s in Education and a Ph. D in
Spanish linguistics/with special emphasis on second language
acquisition, her interests tap topics of language, bilingual
education, and bilingual children’s literature. She has taught
bilingual teachers to use and practice communicative and academic
Spanish needed in bilingual classrooms for more than ten years. She is
currently helping with professional development courses for bilingual
teachers, interpreting in parent/teachers’ conferences, and
translating for several institutions, such as Davis and Riverside
Joint Unified School Districts, the Crocker Art Museum in Sacramento,
YoloArts in Woodland, Davis Art Center, STEAC, and the Zapotec Digital
Project of Ticha.  Laura is a long-standing reviewer for the
Linguistic list Serve and the California Association of School
-University Partnerships (CASUP), and she also reviews articles for
the Elementary School Journal, Journal of Latinos and Education,
Hispania, and Lenguas en Contexto. She published “Functions of the
verb decir (‘to say’) in the incipient academic Spanish writing of
bilingual children in Functions of Language, 15(2), 257-280 (2008) and
the chapter, “Desde California. Acerca de la narración en ámbitos
bilingües” in ¿Cómo aprendemos y cómo enseñamos la narración oral?
(2015). Rosario, Homo Sapiens: 127- 133.



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