29.3214, Review: Danish; English; Applied Linguistics: Dam, Legenhausen, Little (2017)

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LINGUIST List: Vol-29-3214. Mon Aug 20 2018. ISSN: 1069 - 4875.

Subject: 29.3214, Review: Danish; English; Applied Linguistics: Dam, Legenhausen, Little (2017)

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Date: Mon, 20 Aug 2018 14:10:03
From: Mariangel Carreño [mariangelcarrr at yahoo.com]
Subject: Language Learner Autonomy

 
Discuss this message:
http://linguistlist.org/pubs/reviews/get-review.cfm?subid=36362757


Book announced at http://linguistlist.org/issues/28/28-3982.html

AUTHOR: David  Little
AUTHOR: Leni  Dam
AUTHOR: Lienhard  Legenhausen
TITLE: Language Learner Autonomy
SUBTITLE: Theory, Practice and Research
SERIES TITLE: Second Language Acquisition
PUBLISHER: Multilingual Matters
YEAR: 2017

REVIEWER: Mariangel Carreño, Universidad Interamericana de Puerto Rico -- Ponce

INTRODUCTION

The general aim of the book is to provide an account of how language learner
autonomy is put into practice in real contexts and how Language Acquisition
theories support such successful practices. The intended readership of the
text includes pre and in-service language teachers, teacher educators, and
researchers. In the first part of the book, the authors explain the principles
of the autonomy classroom firmly anchored in theory (Introduction and Chapters
1 to 4). In the second part, the book presents evidence that confirms the
effectiveness of the autonomy classroom in developing the language proficiency
of all learners, including those with special educational needs (Chapters 5
and 6). In the third part, the authors show that the autonomy classroom
approach is not only transferable to other language learning contexts but also
responds to larger educational concerns such as the increasing number of
immigrant learners in many educational contexts (Chapter 7). Stating that the
teacher’s first-hand experience of learner autonomy is essential to develop
the interactive dynamic fundamental to autonomous learning, the authors focus
on teacher education and give some consideration to the challenges posed by
curricula and textbooks to learner autonomy and how pre-service teachers can
cope with them (Chapter 8). 

At the end of each chapter, some points for reflection and discussion for
pre-service and in-service teachers are stated for the reader as well as
suggestions for further reading.

SUMMARY

In the Introduction, “The Autonomy Classroom: Procedures and Principle”, the
characteristics of the autonomous classroom are described with examples of
classroom practices. In the autonomy classroom learners increasingly assume
responsibility for their own learning and as they develop their autonomy they
engage more deeply in the target language (TL), gradually becoming more
proficient in it. For the authors “proficiency in language learning and
proficiency in language use are two sides of the same coin” (p. 4).  The goal
of the autonomy classroom is for learners to “specify the aims and purposes of
their work; choose appropriate methods, tasks and materials; organize and
carry out the learning tasks; determine the criteria by which learning process
and its outcome should be judged; and apply those criteria in effective
evaluation” (p. 15). To achieve this goal the teacher should gradually teach
the skills of self-management. The activities proposed in the autonomy
classroom should follow a recursive cycle of reviewing the learning just
completed, planning, implementation, evaluation, with the learners taking
increasing power over their learning process.

The contributions of other researchers are also acknowledged in the
introduction: Holec’s (1981) first introduction of the term ‘learner autonomy’
and his argument for a move from teacher-directed to self-directed
instruction; Barnes’ idea of ‘action knowledge’ as the “assimilation of
knowledge to their own [students’] purposes” (Barnes, 1976: 82) acquired
through ‘exploratory talk’ (the language used to complete problem-solving
activities in small groups), and the idea that this exploratory talk is both
the medium of communication and the means of managing the process of learning;
Breen and Candlin’s strong version of the communicative approach to language
teaching concerned with teaching the language for and through communication
(Breen & Candlin, 1980); autonomy as a universal human capacity, behavioural
drive and emotional need (Deci, 1996); the importance of pair and group work
shaped by exploratory talk (Vygotsky, 1978); the concept of ‘situated
learning’ based on the notion that learning is inseparable from any human
activity, and the concept of ‘communities of practices’ defining the language
classroom as a community of practice with its own principles and actions
(Lave, 1988; Lave & Wenger, 1991); and language seen as the tool for
‘reflective intervention’ (Bruner, 1986).

In Chapter One ‘Using the Target Language: Spontaneity, Identity,
Authenticity’, the authors share practical ideas about how the autonomy class
is shaped in Lower Secondary Education, emphasising the importance of TL use
independently of the students’ level in the TL. They also focus on writing
skill as a precondition for the reflection process needed in the autonomy
class and a way of allowing learners to express their autonomy in and through
the TL. The authors point out that grammar instruction has a rather weak or
non-existent influence on the correct use of grammatical forms in
communicative situations, instead the centre of L2 pedagogy should be TL use.
To support this view, the authors explain the typical activities of the
autonomy classroom, showing examples of learners’ pieces of work. Two types of
activities are central to the work cycle: posters to record and support the
learning of the whole class providing input in the TL and logbooks with
entries under the headings ‘Things I do’, ‘Things I learn’, ‘Homework’ and
‘Evaluation’. Other activities mentioned are: ‘About myself’ for beginners and
learner-produced materials (word cards, dominoes and picture lotto) for the
class. Simultaneously, the teacher begins to build on the early production of
authentic, communicative written texts that learners will share with their
peers (e.g.: picture + text, small books, stories, poems and magazines). While
doing any of these written activities, the learners use their logbooks to
record their learning. 

In Chapter 2 ‘Interaction and Collaboration: The Dialogic Construction of
Knowledge’, the principles of interaction and collaboration are discussed.
These principles are explained with reference to the work of Barnes, the
sociocultural psychology of Vygotsky, the extended concept of dialogue by
Bakhtin, and the idea of the autonomy classroom as a community of practice. In
the autonomy classroom, interaction is seen as the construction of knowledge
(i.e.: learners’ developing proficiency) through dialogic use of the TL which
in turn renews the whole class as a learning community. As it is stated by the
authors “… that proficiency emerges from sustained efforts to use the TL in
spontaneous and authentic communication” (p. 47). Collaboration is the product
of that TL use in which the individual learner serves as resources to the
others in collective activities functioning as a community of learning. 

To put interaction and collaboration into practice, learners need to acquire
basic skills of collaboration to comfortably work in pairs and small groups
starting by giving learners simple, non-threatening tasks to perform in pairs.
Suggestions to foster interaction and collaboration are described showing
extracts of transcripts from learners’ conversations at different proficiency
levels and samples of learners’ products. Examples of these activities
include: ‘Two minutes talk’ about a topic of learners’ choice and having
learners ask their own questions; writing and performing short plays;
exploring curriculum prescribed texts and transforming them (e.g.: a poem into
play); and making board games in pairs or small groups.

In Chapter 3 “Letting Go and Taking Hold: Giving Control to the Learners”, the
authors recapitulate arguments mentioned in the previous chapters. They also
summarize relevant research about handing over control to the learners related
to intrinsic and external motivation, how learner self-management is possible
even for beginner students, and how to manage external constraints to learner
autonomy such as curriculum requirements. Some of the most important
suggestions of the chapter include: the process of transferring control from
the teacher to the learners should be a gradual and continuous process
nourished by constant reflection on the learning process; the teacher should
encourage learners to take initiatives and follow them; the teacher explains
the basic structure of a lesson and how it relates to its aims; acts as a
model of constant use of the TL (encouraging learners to do the same);
problems are seen as challenges; and, learners and their parents must be
informed of the teacher’s roles and what is expected of them. To follow these
principles three essential tools for learning documentation are used: the
learners and the teacher’s logbooks (to organize and carry out learning
tasks), the posters made by the teacher and by the students, and the learners’
portfolios (a selection of student’s work that gives evidence of progress).
Common procedures in the autonomy class are mentioned with classroom examples,
such as a negotiated list of ‘Dos and Don’ts’, sitting in groups, making
learners aware of curriculum requirements (translating them into classroom
activities for beginners, providing suggestions on how to improve or
statements about what learners are expected to achieve). The structure of each
lesson should be the same so that learners can take gradual control of what to
do and why; as the examples from the book show, the lesson is divided into
three parts: ‘Teacher’s time’, ‘Learners’ time’ and ‘Together time’.

Chapter 4 “Evaluation: The Hinge on which Learner Autonomy Turns” summarizes
traditional views of assessment and evaluation and states that in the autonomy
classroom all aspects of teaching and learning are subject to evaluation,
which is considered an essential language activity. Learners are gradually
encouraged to use the TL for evaluation, the teacher introduces and explains
the principles and implementation of evaluation using simple questions (open
questions, yes/no questions supporting the answers, scales to answer the
questions) which are recorded in learners’ logbooks and posters. Another
resource mentioned is an individual month’s contract. To deal with the
requirement of official grades, the teacher asks learners to grade their own
essays before handling them based on a negotiated criterion within the
framework provided by the official scale; peer-assessment is encouraged as
well. The remaining parts of the chapter describe examples showing learners’
self-assessment, peer-assessment and the teacher’s assessment of students’
work.

Chapter 5 “Exploring Learning Outcomes: Some Research Findings” presents the
results of the LAALE project (Language Acquisition in an Autonomous Learning
Environment), a longitudinal empirical research comparing a Danish
mixed-ability class following the principles of the autonomy class with a
German traditional class of selected upper ability students following an
explicit grammar instruction. The study compared the learning of vocabulary,
the acquisition of the TL grammar and the acquisition of pragmatic competence
of both groups; it also researched the validity of learners’ self-assessment
of the autonomy class. The results of the research for each area investigated,
support the claims that the autonomy classroom enhances TL proficiency.

Chapter 6 “Language Learner Autonomy and Inclusion: Two Case Studies”
describes two case studies of learners in the LAALE project (described in
Chapter 5) to support the claim that applying the principles of the autonomy
classroom supports both the academic and the social development of all
learners, including those with special educational needs. The two case studies
focus on two learners with different kinds of special needs: a learner with
disruptive behaviour associated with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
(ADHD) and a learner with severe dyslexia. Examples from the corpora of case
studies are shown and include extracts from the teachers’ and the learners’
logbooks, samples of materials and texts produced by the learners, evaluation
sheets, and transcriptions of video recordings of plays and of peer-to-peer
talks.

In Chapter 7 “The Linguistic, Social and Educational Inclusion of Immigrants:
A New Challenge for Language Learner Autonomy”, the authors are concerned with
the educational challenge of large-scale migration and intend to demonstrate
that applying the principles of the autonomy classroom is the most appropriate
approach to foster the linguistic, social and educational inclusion of
immigrants. Two case studies from Ireland are described to support such claim.
The first concerns Integrate Ireland Language and Training (IILT) for adult
refugees, an educational programme whose approach was closely modelled on the
autonomy classroom principles, adopting the European Language Portfolio as an
additional means of documenting and supporting learning. The second case study
describes the approach to language education of the primary school Scoil
Bhríde (St Brigid’s School for Girls) in which 80% of the learners were not
native speakers of English and there were as many as 49 home languages in
addition to English and Irish. Examples of learners’ work are also included. 

The final chapter “Teacher Education for Language Learner Autonomy: Some
Reflections and Proposals”, revisits the principles of language learner
autonomy in the context of teacher education, asserting that autonomy learning
is a ‘political act’ (p. 219) against the traditional education which seeks to
maintain the hierarchical organization of the society. Then, the focus turns
to integrate the principles of autonomy learning into teachers’ professional
formation, specifically how to cope with traditional curriculum requirements
by using and adapting ‘The Common European Framework of Reference for
Languages’ (CEFR) to amplify curriculum goals. There are also guidelines to
use a textbook without compromising the principles of autonomous learning as
well as a brief extract about integrating the evaluation procedures in the
autonomy classroom with public examinations. As elsewhere in the book, the
underlying assumption is that the procedures used in the autonomy classroom
should be elaborated and explored with learners and linked to the
participants’ pedagogical context.

EVALUATION

The authors of this book have successfully combined Language Acquisition
theory, research, and practical pedagogical suggestions about autonomous
learning. They make their perspectives on autonomy classroom clear starting
with their view of language learning and describing the principles of autonomy
learning supported by theory. Their approach is clearly described with
examples of procedures, techniques and materials from actual classrooms, which
will show teachers and teacher educators how to start developing learner
autonomy from the very first class. It is, in fact, this practical aspect of
the book what makes it unique. Besides, the research data included in the
second part of the book gives empirical evidence of the success of this
approach to autonomy learning.

The book is also compelling because it presents a teaching and learning
approach that embeds language learning in a more general process of
socialization and inclusion, offering educational systems a course of action
to face the challenge of large-scale immigration. The two case studies from
Ireland and the sample work presented by immigrant learners show empirical
evidence that the principles of the autonomy classroom can be adapted
according to the needs of both children and adult immigrants.

Recognizing that a shift from traditional education to the approach described
in the book represents a great challenge for teachers, the authors also
address teacher educators, giving suggestions and examples to introduce the
principles of autonomy learning to student teachers so that they have a
first-hand experience of the autonomy classroom, which is, according to the
authors, an essential element to understand autonomy learning. In fact,
without intending to be a methodological book, it might be used as one of the
main bibliographical references in any teaching course because each chapter
includes points for reflection aligned with the principles of learner
autonomy. They also provide in-service teachers with opportunities to reflect
on those principles and how they could be applied to their own teaching
context. In addition, although the book focuses on learning English as a
second language, the principles and procedures of autonomy learning described
in it can be used in other TL learning contexts. 

On the other hand, bearing in mind the paramount role that self- reflection on
learning has in this approach and the importance attached to the writing skill
to achieve the communicative and metacognitive purposes, it is reasonable to
think that the procedures described in this book might not be applicable to
pre-primary students.

Another concern not dealt with in the book is that in some cultures a
traditional approach to teaching is not only expected by the educational
institution but also by the learners themselves. Even though the authors
recognize that most learners are not used to taking part in the decisions
about their own learning process and that it is the teachers’ role to
introduce them to this practice, there may be reasons to doubt the success of
such an approach in contexts where teacher-led instruction is deeply rooted in
the cultural values of a society. Further studies are needed in such
educational contexts.

For readers who are seeking to find answers to widespread educational
challenges such as lack of learners’ motivation, low TL proficiency
achievements or the inclusion of students with different educational needs,
this is a must-read book.

REFERENCES

Bakhtin; M. (1986) Speech Genres and Other Late Essays. Austin, TX: University
of  
    Texas Press.

Barnes, D. (1976) From Communication to Curriculum. Harmondsworth: Penguin.

Breen, M.P. and Candlin, C.N. (1980) The essentials of a communicative
curriculum in 
language teaching. Applied Linguistics 1 (2), 89-112.

Bruner, J. (1986a) The language of education. In Actual Minds, Possible Worlds
(pp.121-133). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Council of Europe (2001) Common European Framework of Reference for Languages:
Learning, Teaching, Assessment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Council of Europe (2011) European Language Portfolio (ELP) Principles and 
Guidelines, with Added Explanatory Notes. Strasbourg: Council of Europe. See 
http://www.coe.int/portfolio - ELP Principles and Guidelines and CEFR

Deci, E.L., with Flaste, R. (1996) Why We Do What We Do: Understanding Self-
motivation. New York: Penguin.

Holec, H. (1981) Autonomy and Foreign Language Learning. Oxford: Pergamon.
(First 
published 1979, Strasbourg: Council of Europe).

IILT (Integrate Ireland Language and Training) (2003) English Language
Proficiency 
Benchmarks for Non-English-speaking Pupils at Primary Level. Dublin: 
Integrate Ireland Language and Training. See http://www.ncca.ie/iilt -
Primary.

Lave, J. (1988) Cognition in Practice: Mind, Mathematics and Culture in
Everyday 
Life. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 

Lave, J. and Wenger. E. (1991) Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral
Participation. 
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Vygotsky, L.S. (1978) Mind in Society. The Development of Higher Cognitive 
Processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.


ABOUT THE REVIEWER

Mariangel Carreño holds a Master Degree in TEFL at UNINI (Puerto Rico) and is
a Master of Human Sciences student at Udelar (Uruguay). She has taught ESOL in
Uruguay, and her research interests include SLA, ICT and L2 learning, learner
autonomy, and L2 learning beyond the class.





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