30.4003, Review: Applied Linguistics: Bouckaert, Konings, van Winkelhof (2018)

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Subject: 30.4003, Review: Applied Linguistics: Bouckaert, Konings, van Winkelhof (2018)

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Date: Tue, 22 Oct 2019 13:23:10
From: Caroline Hutchinson [carolineshutchinson at gmail.com]
Subject: Meaning-Focused Materials for Language Learning

 
Discuss this message:
http://linguistlist.org/pubs/reviews/get-review.cfm?subid=36528097


Book announced at http://linguistlist.org/issues/30/30-476.html

EDITOR: Marina  Bouckaert
EDITOR: Monique  Konings
EDITOR: Marjon  van Winkelhof
TITLE: Meaning-Focused Materials for Language Learning
PUBLISHER: Cambridge Scholars Publishing
YEAR: 2018

REVIEWER: Caroline Hutchinson

SUMMARY

Meaning-Focused Materials for Language Learning, edited by Marina Bouckaert,
Monique Konings and Marjon van Winkelhof, is a collection of contributions
arising from the 2017 conference of materials-development association MATSDA.
The book is divided into four parts, considering materials creation, teaching
interventions involving meaning-focused materials, the use of digital
materials and multimedia, and critical perspectives on language learning
materials and testing systems.

Part 1 (Co-)Creating Meaning-Focused Materials

In Chapter 1, Brian Tomlinson asks “What should meaning-focused mean?” He
offers the definition that meaning-focused materials should provide “exposure
to rich input and meaningful use of the L2 in context, which is intended to
lead to incidental acquisition of the L2” (Norris & Ortega, 2001: 160).
Although the validity of this approach is supported by second language
acquisition theory and research, its lack of face validity with those who
believe in explicit teaching means that it is rarely put into practice.
Compromises include Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) approaches which
orient students to linguistic features during otherwise meaning-focused
lessons.

Tomlinson suggests that while we generally understand “meaning” in terms of
denotative meaning - the definition in the dictionary - the word actually
incorporates a far wider range. Other types of meaning include connotative
(“slim” has a more positive connotation than “skinny”), meaning in a given
context, and pragmatic meaning (“the grass is getting long” may be a criticism
of the person who has yet to cut it, although its semantic meaning is a simple
observation).

Students understand a complex range of meanings in their first language, but
teachers and textbooks tend to confine themselves to form focus and semantic
meaning, artificially sheltering students from authentic L2 language use. In
response to this problem, Tomlinson suggests a number of possible solutions,
including  use of TV and soap operas, opportunities to interact naturally with
the teacher and other proficient speakers, and the creation of a class
‘self-access center’ with materials reflecting authentic language use.

He then outlines a text-driven approach involving meaning-focused orientation
and response to a text, further development of the text (for example, writing
what happens next), a focus on the text’s pragmatic use of language, further
research on this use of language outside the classroom, and finally a revision
of the development activity based on what students have learned in their
research. Example materials are included, which demonstrate how the materials
aim to develop both linguistic and pragmatic competence. 

In Chapter 2, Danny Norrington-Davies outlines a number of common objections
to textbook use in the language classroom, in particular Jordan’s (2016)
argument that course books are often designed in line with mistaken beliefs
about how we learn second languages. He goes on to argue, however, that
textbooks can provide a sense of structure and function as a time-saving
device, if teachers can exploit and supplement them effectively. In order to
do this, it is essential to engage learners cognitively and effectively, and
incorporate opportunities to work with language and needs as they emerge. 

The author presents deficiencies in three common textbook activities:
comprehension questions, rule discovery activities and controlled practice
activities. The first two activities involve little cognitive engagement, and
direct students to notice and respond to only limited features of the text.
Controlled practice activities may help to build confidence or put a grammar
form in working memory, but involve manipulation of a single form rather than
genuine communication. All three give the materials writer ultimate power over
what is learned, thereby reducing student agency.

To avoid these issues, teachers can consider

-  Incorporating personal response or evaluation questions, such as “What kind
of groups would like to go on the trip? Justify your opinion.”)

-  Looking for reasons rather than rules, for example “why does the writer use
the superlative?” This helps learners understand that language is used to
achieve a communicative goal.

-  Replication tasks, rather than controlled practice. Here, students create
the same kind of text, raising the cognitive demand and allowing students to
include their own ideas.

In these ways, teachers can reduce the extent to which materials dictate
lesson content, and challenge students to use language to create new content
and meaning.

In Chapter 3, Roberta Amendola considers meaning-focused resource books for
teachers. This chapter describes a research project focusing on the uses of
student and teacher books in Spanish as a Foreign Language teaching in Brazil,
with particular focus on the relevance to teachers of the teacher’s resources.
Teacher’s books provide exercise keys and cultural notes, and aim to help
teachers develop their role in the classroom, while teacher’s guides provide
explanations of the methodology of the course book; in reality the author’s
research indicated that they are rarely used. In response, a series of
magazines was developed to accompany a new course book series, aiming to
encourage teachers to access additional guidance that they felt to be
attractive and relevant to their practice.

Chapter 4, by Isabella Seeger, considers possible remedies for a persistent
gap between the aims of educators and interests of secondary students, which
can result in a loss of learner motivation due to a perceived lack of
relevance of institutional learning. One way around this issue is to involve
students in choice in the classroom, so that the locus of control lies with
learners (Benson, 2011). While it can be difficult to find topics which
interest all learners, this can be achieved by having students generate
sub-topics and having them choose democratically; students also seem more
receptive to content when it is personalized by other students’ interest.
While teachers may feel that some student-suggested materials are
inappropriate, the writer suggests that the experience of semi-autonomy may
make students more open to teacher-generated content in the future.

In Chapter 5, Marina Bouckaert explores the issue of how to incorporate
meaning-focused materials - and thus encourage  use of such materials by
future teachers - in a teacher training course with a strong focus on form.
She argues that modelling ideal teaching practices, while explaining their
rationale, is a powerful tool for teacher educators. She then describes a
range of activities which share a progression: first, students communicate in
contexts that elicit target structures, and they then discuss form using their
own student generated language examples. This enables students to create their
own rules and develop pragmatic strategies. Finally, especially in teacher
education, the author recommends incorporating feedback and reflection on the
activities.

Part II Materials as meaningful interventions

In Chapter 6, Tony Waterman describes the materials development process he
followed to create an English for Security course in Oman. The writer provides
detailed examples of needs analysis, syllabus and materials design, and the
creation of student and teacher book, all with a focus on meaningful
communication. Of particular interest to me was the comprehensive needs
analysis process, during which the author spoke with serving officers at all
levels and expatriate employees; he also  observed classes taught using the
existing class materials. While the context is specific, the chapter should be
of interest to anyone looking to design an ESP course with a meaning-focused
approach, and sample materials are provided.

In Chapter 7, Sakae Onoda explores how linked skills tasks can promote L2 oral
fluency. In linked skills tasks, a single subject matter is focused on for an
extended period spanning different tasks, leading to recycling of language and
deep processing, improving fluency and self-efficacy. In the Japanese context,
this forms a useful counterpart to test-focused study of texts which are
frequently above students’ level. The chapter discusses two classes, a control
group and one following a more closely linked skills approach, with the latter
demonstrating greater oral fluency development. Further, students’ perceptions
that their fluency and accuracy had improved positively influenced their
motivation and confidence.

In Chapter 8, Majid Elahi Shirvan describes an experiment using electronic
corpora as meaning-focused materials, in which students first familiarized
themselves with a word, accessed the concordance data and articulated how it
engaged them, deepened their awareness of different aspects of meaning, then
finally produced texts in groups based on what they had learned. Students
demonstrated significant improvement in understanding in post-tests, and
interview participants reported feeling engaged with the data and developing
their ability to discover patterns by themselves.

In Chapter 9, Anne-Mette Korcyznski discusses the context of Danish teacher
education in Greenland. She terms her teaching approach “Performance”, which
aims to achieve an understanding of the world as it is formed by culture and
history. For students to take part in Performance, the writer considers it
important that they are aware of when they are in Flow, which Csikszentmihalyi
(2005) defines as a state of mind in which learners’ consciousness is fully
concentrated on a task. She describes one brainstorming and discussion
activity in which materials are co-created and shared by participants.

Chapter 10 considers a task-based interactive approach used by author L. Junia
Ngoepe with English language graduate students in South Africa. Students are
assigned both oral and written presentations, and when they are not presenting
are expected to participate actively as audience members. Questionnaire data
is presented, along with student responses. Students felt that the task-based
approach was motivating and encouraged interaction, and empowered them to take
control of their own learning. The author concludes by calling for greater
student-lecturer collaboration in delivering content in English to speakers of
other languages. 

Part III Creating Meaning through Digital Materials and Multimedia

In Chapter 11, Claudia Mewald and Sabine Waller introduce the PALM project
(Promoting Authentic Language acquisition in Multilingual contexts), funded
through ERASMUS. This project encourages learners to produce authentic texts
for their peers in written, audio and video form, giving text production a
meaningful outcome. The project aims to foster linguistic skills and
intercultural competences through authentic input and tasks, scaffolding
understanding, raising awareness of multilingual identities, fostering
sensitivity to other cultures and individuals, learner autonomy, and awareness
of learning strategies.

Chapter 12 considers a technology-enabled language learning (TELL) course in
India, and is authored by Sujata Bhonsale, Jennifer Thomas, Ashwin Nagappa and
Ling Hsiao. The CLIx English course aims to supplement traditional learning
methods in under-served communities, using computers to provide materials, and
opportunities to collaborate and use English. Each lesson centers on a story,
which were designed to sound authentic and connected to the life experience of
students. These stories are followed by interactive tasks, such as
story-telling or role plays, which students complete in pairs. 

In Chapter 13, Alessandra Belletti Figueira Mülling describes a
meaning-focused extensive reading that was added to English distance learning
materials created by the Ministry of Education in Brazil. With no evaluation
or expected outcomes, the primary aims of the intervention, titled “Catching a
Glimpse”, were to promote meaning-focused reading and cultural awareness. Many
participants described the topics as interesting, and spontaneously referred
to texts that they had read. Although the majority preferred to read for
pleasure, several expressed the need for follow-up activities to compel
students to complete the reading, illustrating how differences between learner
perceptions and pedagogical aims can impact the learning process.

In Chapter 14, Rosa-Maria Cives-Enriquez describes how she makes use of poetry
and storytelling to teach Spanish culture and language in the UK. Adopting a
CLIL framework, she encourages students to become aware of their learning
needs and styles. To exemplify her teaching approach, she describes in detail
two lessons focusing on Picasso’s life and a poem about the Spanish civil war.
She argues that the approach has benefits linguistically, culturally, and in
engaging the emotions so language is experienced as a communication tool.

Chapter 15 focuses on author Julia Rickermann’s use of authentic English
picture books in the primary foreign language context. She argues that since
the foreign language syllabus at primary level is often topic-based, it is
thus meaning-focused. In the study, eleven learners independently read six
English picture books, and did not seem overtaxed as they finished the books
and rated their comprehension reasonably highly. The author concludes that use
of such books provides authentic, meaningful input, a dual focus on language
and content, and can also support a focus on form.

Part IV Critical Perspectives on Meaning-focused Materials

In Chapter 16, Amir Hossein Sarkeshikian proposes a framework for
meaning-focused materials development that is informed by a critical
constructivist perspective. As meaning-focused instruction has come to the
forefront of language education, practitioners have become more aware of the
complexity of language learning, and the influence of personal histories and
language ideologies on the learning process. To take this into account, the
writer proposes a three-stage framework for developing meaning-focused
materials: shared critical reflection on the political aspects of language
use; discussion of problems and themes arising from real experience; designing
lessons which incorporate problematized themes.

Chapter 17, by Nausica Marcos Miguel and Robert Hershberger, describes the
development of meaning-focused intermediate Spanish teaching materials for the
US university context. The project aimed to incorporate a greater focus on
global issues by critically interrogating the idealized content presented in
existing textbooks, which typically functioned as a vehicle for grammar and
vocabulary rather than as meaningful content in its own right. The chapter
presents some of the activities in detail, such as a thought-provoking
vocabulary brainstorm in which students supplemented a largely positive
vocabulary list about the Hispanic experience in the US with words they felt
accurately described their experience, generating a great deal more negative
ideas. 

In Chapter 18, Iffat Subhani discusses the dilemma she encountered in
preparing students for IELTS examinations while adopting an English as a
Lingua Franca approach. She describes a “Carry Forward - Combine - Construct”
approach (“3Cs”), in which students first give their own ideas, then
assimilate new knowledge, and finally build their own knowledge and language
relating to the topic. Learner feedback suggested that students became more
aware of the features of general academic English, and gained an appreciation
that English is more than a collection of discrete grammar forms leading to a
high test score. A detailed lesson plan is included.

Chapter 19 sees Asma Aftab evaluate the extent to which certain course books,
IELTS and Cambridge O level tests focus on meaning. She has developed a
framework incorporating eight key concepts, such as attention to pragmatic
meaning, communicative purpose, sense of audience, and relevance of tasks to
student needs. Measured against this framework, none of the above scores more
than 50%, and she evaluates the examination tasks in particular as highly
controlled and lacking a focus on skills needed in real-life contexts. 

In Chapter 20, Claudia Saraceni considers the gap between authentic language
use, classroom pedagogy, and language assessment practices. While
meaning-focused methodologies (and those combining meaning and form-focus,
such as CLIL) have gained ground in pedagogical literature and research, the
author argues that a form-focused approach often prevails in actual classroom
practice. She believes that this is influenced by language testing practices
which subordinate meaning to form and present simple, context-less texts which
present language in terms of its basic semantic meaning.

EVALUATION

This edited volume offers a global insight into current theory and practice
relating to meaning-focused language-learning materials, offering
practitioners a valuable opportunity to update their practice while glimpsing
contexts beyond their own. Both theory and practice are addressed, and many
contributors provide detailed examples of materials or teaching interventions.
The final section on critical perspectives raises a number of important issues
relating to the validity of language assessment practices, both local and
international, and the relevance and authenticity of standardized learning
materials 

Given the breadth and importance of the issues raised, it is perhaps
unfortunate that the book provides no overarching conclusion. A final word
from the editors or conference conveners would go a long way to clarifying the
current situation in meaning-focused materials development, potential avenues
for future enquiry, and any recurring themes arising from the conference
discussion. A conclusion could also have clarified the relation between theory
and practice across the various contexts discussed, and suggested concrete
next steps for practitioners.

Unfortunately, there are typographic and spelling errors in the book, most
noticeably a missing reference in the first chapter to a recent publication on
spoken corpora. In Chapter 10, the meaning of certain data points is not
explained, requiring reference to the appendix. It is to be hoped that these
errors can be corrected in a subsequent edition, as they do detract from the
readability of the book. I would also question how accessible certain chapters
are to newcomers, as the limited space available does not always allow for a
thorough explanation of concepts.

These issues notwithstanding, the book provides a thought-provoking journey
into issues at the crux of language education: how best to motivate and engage
learners, encourage critical thinking and a global perspective, raise
awareness of both pragmatic and semantic meaning while drawing attention to
form, and how to prepare learners to use language in a world that may not be
accurately reflected in language curricula and assessment practices. Its
overall message is positive, encouraging small changes at the local level,
such as supplementary materials, opportunities for student choice, or
additional questions that encourage authentic personal response and pragmatic
understanding.

REFERENCES

Benson, P. (2011). Teaching and Researching: Autonomy in Language Learning
(2nd ed.). Abingdon: United Kingdom: Routledge. 

Csikszentmihalyi, M., Abuhamdeh, S., & Nakamura, J. (2005). Flow. In A. J.
Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp.
598-608). New York, NY, US: Guilford Publications. 

Jordan, G. (2016). The case against coursebooks. Modern English Teacher, 25
(1), 50-52.

Norris, J., & Ortega, L. (2001). Does type of instruction make a difference?
Substantive findings from a meta-analytic review. Language Learning, 51,
Supplement 1, 157-213.


ABOUT THE REVIEWER

Caroline Hutchinson is an assistant professor at Nihon University College of
Economics, Japan, and has worked in Japanese higher education since 2012. She
has also taught in Vietnam, Hungary and the UK, where she is originally from.
She has designed and taught several CLIL courses relating to Japanese Studies
and Tourism. Other research interests include autonomy, motivation, and the
psychology of language learning.





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